** 

1 

THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 
LOS  ANGELES 


TSvO 


IN    UNIFORM    STYLE. 


RUSSIA.  By  D.  Mackenzie  WAiiLACE,  M.A. 

Member  of  tlie  Imperial  Russian  Geographical 
Society.    8vo.,  Cloth;  with  two  colored  maps,  $4. 


TURKEY.  By  James  Baker,  M.A.,  Lieu- 
tenant-Colonel  Auxiliary  Forces,  formerly  Eighth 
Hussars.    8vo.,  Cloth;  with  two  colored  maps,  $4. 

HENRY  HOLT  &  CO., 

PUBLISHERS, 

UEW  YORK. 


r 


TURKEY 


JAMES    BAKEE,    M.A. 

X.IEXXTEI«TA.lsrT-COX.OIsrEIj    jft-XJ3S:iL.IA.I4"X"    FORCES 
Formerly  Mghth  Eussara 


NEW  YORK 

HENRY  HOLT  AND  COMPANY 

1877 


DR 


BilM+i 


PREFACE. 


TT  was  asserted,  I  believe,  by  Sydney  Smith,  that  "no 
man  in  England  must  presume  to  express  an  opinion 
of  his  own  upon  any  subject  unless  he  has  an  income  of 
at  least  £3,600  a  year." 

K  that  sum  is  required  for  the  right  of  independent 
expression  of  opinion,  what  would  be  the  necessary  in- 
come for  acquiring  the  right  of  producing  a  book  ?  That 
interesting  arithmetical  problem  may  safely  be  confided 
to  the  care  of  the  Civil  Service  Commissioners  ;  but  while 
it  remains  unsolved  I  seize  the  opportunity  to  place  upon 
paper  my  experiences  of  Turkey  in  Europe,  in  the  hope 
that  in  these  days,  when  so  much  interest  is  felt  in  that 
unhappy  country,  any  personal  knowledge  of  the  land 
and  people  may  have  some  attractions  and  be  of  some 
service. 

Traveling  is  but  a  selfish  gratification  if  the  knowledge 
acquired  by  it  is  confined  to  the  traveler,  and  it  seems  to 
me  to  be  a  duty  which  he  owes  to  the  public  to  reflect  to 
the  best  of  his  ability  his  experience  of  the  countries  and 
peoples  he  has  visited. 

As  a  passport  to  my  reader  for  presuming  to  write  ex 
catJiedrd,  I  may  state  that  I  have  traveled  on  horseback 
more  than  a  thousand  miles  through  Turkey  in  Europe, 
besides  many  hundreds  of  miles  along  the  coast  in  boat 
and  steamer,  and  I  have  resided  in  the  country  off  and  on 


3048723 


iv  PEE  FACE. 

for  three  years.  In  other  respects  I  have  been  so  circum- 
stanced as  to  be  brought  into  contact  with  officials,  both 
foreign  and  native,  of  all  grades,  which  has  necessarily- 
afforded  me  the  opportunity  of  acquiring  much  valuable 
information. 

The  short  acquaintance  I  had  with  Constantinople 
during  the  Crimean  War  enables  me  to  compare  the 
general  aspect  of  that  beautiful  city  then  and  now  ;  but  it 
has  been  asserted  that  Paris  is  not  France,  and  with  still 
greater  force  may  it  be  said  that  Constantinople  is  not 
Turkey,  for  a  residence  in  the  latter  capital  without 
visiting  the  interior  would  create  a  very  erroneous  impres- 
sion of  the  people. 

It  is  a  country  where  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  obtain 
accurate  information,  in  consequence  of  the  either  pro- 
or  anti-Turkish  proclivities  of  the  informants. 

I  remember,  for  example,  upon  one  occasion  asking  a 
resident  of  many  years'  standing — a  very  clever  man,  but 
a  Philottoman — his  opinion  of  the  integrity  of  a  certain 
pasha,  who  held  a  very  important  government  post,  and 
I  received  in  answer  such  a  glowing  description  of  the 
virtues  of  the  old  Turk  that  I  instinctively  raised  my  eyes 
to  his  shoulders  in  search  of  the  budding  of  angelic  wings, 
but  on  turning  to  another  resident  of  equally  long  stand- 
ing, but  a  Turcophobist,  and  putting  the  same  question,  I 
received  a  reply  which  made  me  turn  my  inspection  to 
the  pasha's  slippers  in  search  of  the  cloven  foot.  The 
truth  lay  probably  midway  between  these  extreme  opin- 
ions— that  is  to  say,  that  the  pasha  had  been  known  to  do 
many  just  and  praiseworthy  acts,  but  that  he,  at  the  same 
time,  acknowledged  the  efficacy  of  haclcsMsTi. 

It  is  this  mixture  of  poison  with  the  pure  fluid  which 
produces — according  as  either  one  or  the  other  has  been 


PREFACE.  V 

most  tasted— tlie  divergence  of  opinion  so  common  to  the 
conntry. 

It  is  a  doctrine  of  Confucius  that  "  True  virtue  consists 
in  avoiding  extremes  ; "  and  in  the  following  pages  I  shall 
do  my  utmost  to  profit  by  this  instruction,  in  order  that 
the  Turk  may  be  weighed  fairly  in  the  balance. 

A  very  few  years  ago,  the  general  public  knew  as  little 
of  the  interior  of  Turkey  and  of  its  affairs  as  of  Timbuctoo ; 
but  the  events  of  the  last  few  years  have  created  a  special 
interest  in  the  country,  which  has  happily  made  its  sub- 
jects better  known  to  the  world,  and  the  greater  the  true 
knowledge  in  that  direction  the  better  it  will  be  for  the 
Turk, 

Such  broad  and  sweeping  condemnation  is  made  of  the 
whole  nation  by  those  who  only  gain  their  information 
second-hand,  and  the  character  of  the  Turkish  people  is 
so  mixed  up  by  them  with  that  of  Turkish  officials,  that 
to  any  impartial  man  who  is  well  acquainted  with  the 
country  the  injustice  is  frequently  so  glaring,  that  it 
rouses  his  indignation  at  the  absence  which  is  exhibited 
of  common  justice  and  fair  play,  qualities  of  which  Eng- 
lishmen are  especially  and  justly  proud.  Even  the  Turkish 
Government  is  so  frequently  denied  any  credit  for  what 
it  has  done,  and  is  so  often  blamed  for  that  which  it  has 
not  done,  that  those  who  in  their  hearts  condemn  it 
are,  for  the  sake  of  fair  play,  ranged  on  the  side  of  its 
defense. 

It  is  impossible  for  any  person,  and  especially  one  who 
is  resident  in  the  country,  to  close  his  eyes  to  the  short- 
comings of  the  Turkish  Government,  but  so  much  the 
more  should  all  Turkish  subjects  be  pitied ;  and,  when 
humanity  is  concerned,  I  cannot  understand  why  any 
distinction  should  be  made  between  the  Turkish    and 


yi  PREFACE. 

Christian  peasant,  except  it  be  from  sectarian  idiosyn- 
crasies, wliicli  are  so  uncliaritable  that  they  become 
unchristian. 

There  are  other  countries  where  the  government  officials 
are  quite  as  venal  as  those  of  Turkey,  and  yet  those  coun- 
tries advance  in  progress  and  civilization.  Russia  stands 
out  pre-eminent  in  that  respect ;  but  in  Turkey,  to  venality 
there  is  added  an  apathy  in  administration  which  is  fatal 
to  progress.  Her  sins  of  omission  are  even  greater  than 
those  of  commission. 

It  is  useless  to  make  more  laws :  those  which  now  exist 
are  admirable,  as  well  as  the  organization  of  the  machin- 
ery of  government ;  but  what  is  wanted  is  an  honest  and 
active  administration. 

In  judging  of  Turkey,  we  must  remember  that  there  is  a 
foreign  Power  always  ready  and  anxious,  not  only  to  mis- 
represent her,  but  to  place  every  possible  impediment  in 
the  way  of  her  progress.  It  is  useless  to  shut  our  eyes  to 
this  fact :  it  is  patent  to  any  one  who  lives  in  Turkey,  and 
to  any  one  who  chooses  to  study  the  history  of  that  coun- 
try for  the  last  fifty  years. 

In  the  following  pages  I  lay  before  the  reader  my  ex- 
perience of  Turkey  and  her  people  as  I  actually  found 
them.  I  trust  that  the  account  which  I  give,  imperfect 
though  it  is,  may  yet  help  to  dispel  many  of  the  clouds  of 
misconception  which  envelop  that  unfortunate  and  well- 
abused  country. 

April,  1877. 


OOJN"TENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 
THE  VOYAGE  OUT. 

FA8B 

From  Liverpool  to  Constantinople — My  Fellow-passengers — A  Strange 
Hobby — First  View  of  Troy — The  Golden  Horn — I  am  seized  upon 
by  Far  Away  Moses — Capabilities  of  tbe  Turkish  Porters — Compara- 
tive Merits  of  tbe  Pera  and  Tberapia  Hotels — Trips  on  tbe  Bospborus 
— "Fire" — Variety  of  Nationalities — An  Ethnological  PLll — Bace 
and  Religion 1 

CHAPTER  n. 

THE  BUIiGAKIAHS. 

The  Bulgarians — Their  Finnic  Origin — First  Emigration  into  Thrace — 
Marked  Difference  between  the  Inhabitants  North  and  South  of  the 
Balkan — Introduction  of  Christianity — Foundation  of  the  Bulgarian 
National  Church — Reign  of  King  Simeon — War  between  Greeks  and 
Bulgarians — Horrible  Cruelties  practiced  on  either  side — Strong 
National  Feeling  existing  among  the  Latter — Persecution  of  the  Bul- 
garian by  the  Greek  Church — National  Schools — District  of  PhUip- 
popolis — Compulsory  School-rate — Protestant  Mission  School  at 
Samakov — American  College  on  the  Bosphorus — Sect  of  the  Pauli- 
cians — Bulgarian  Newspapers — Monastery  of  Rilo — Revival  of  the 
Bulgarian  National  Church — Spiritual  Circular  from  the  Synod — 
Ecclesiastical  Disputes  between  Greeks  and  Bulgarians — Fomented 
by  Russia — Cretan  Insurrection — Lord  Strangford — So-called  Re- 
bellion of  1867-68 — Manufacture  of  that  of  1876 — Administration  of 
Justice 18 

CHAPTER  III. 

THE  BOSPHORUS  AND  BLACK  SEA. 

Turkish  Red-tapeism — My  Struggles  for  a  Passport — To  Burgas  by 
Steamer — Undercurrents  of  the  Bosphorus — Possible  Connection  be- 
tween it  and  the  Caspian — The  Great  Flood — Bay  and  Town  of 
Burgas 63 


viii  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  lY. 

OTTOMAN-GKEEK  StJBJECTS. 

PA8I 

Ottoman-Greek  Subjects — Their  First  Entrance  into  the  Country — Emi- 
gration of  Ancient  Greeks — The  Greek  and  Russian  Churches — Pan 
Hellenism — Town  of  Sisopolis — Greeks  on  the  Black  Sea  Coast — 
Their  Primitive  Customs — Bitter  Feeling  against  the  Turk — Llas- 
sacre  at  Niausta — Greek  Brigandage 71 

CHAPTER  V. 

"EN  VOYAGE." 

An  English  Vice-Consul — Torture  I — Scenery  of  the  Black  Sea  Coast — 
Djeverli — The  Bulgarian  Peasants — Interior  of  their  Houses — Their 
Habits  and  Customs — Bulgarian  Dances — Bagpipes — A  Funeral — A 
Dinner-party — The  Pole  Listopat — "Good  dog,  good  dog  !" — A  Cir- 
cassian Village — Russian  Philanthropy  in  Circassia — A  Skirmish — 
The  Knight  of  the  Tea-pot 83 

CHAPTER  VI. 

FEOM  BUBGAS  TO  TANBOLI. 

District  of  Burgas — Malaria  Fevers — "Breakers  ahead" — Jackals  in 
Europe — "Yarin"  and  Procrastination — Monastery  of  St.  Athanasius 
— Mineral  Springs — John  in  a  Dilemma — Value  of  Land — A  Circas- 
sian Horse-dealer — Tanboli — Ancient  Tumuli — ^Migration  of  Storks 
— Scandal  in  Stork-land— ^Pleasures  of  a  Turkish  Khan — Sheep  and 
Covrs  of  the  District 105 

CHAPTER  Vn. 

THE   TTJEKS. 

Their  Origin — "Western  Emigration — ^Various  Tribes — Their  Slavery — 
Their  Nomad  Life — Wise  Counsel — Their  Religion — Persian  Rivals — 
Tura  and  Arya — Babel— The  Golden  Age—Mahmoud  the  Ghaznivide — 
The  Race  of  Seljvik — A  Quiver  of  Sultans — Togrul  Beg — Alp  Arslan — 
The  Roum  Dynasty — Turkish  Cavalry — The  Crusaders — The  Tartars 
ujider  Genghis  Khan — The  Seljukian  Turks — Soliman  Shah — Er- 
toghrul  and  His  Choice — His  son  Othman — Sultan  Orchan  allies 
himself  with  Cantacuzenus — Death  of  Soliman  and  succession  of 
Amurath — Origin  of  the  Janizaries — Timour  and  Sultan  Bajazid — 
Battle  of  Angora — Ambition  of  Timour 121 


CONTENTS.  ix 

CHAPTER  Vm. 

TUEKISH  GOVEKBTMENT. 

PAQB 

Turkisli  Government — Various  Races  under  its  Sway — Character  of  the 
Turkish  Soldier — Feudal  Tenure — Pillars  of  the  State — "Sublime 
Porte" — Pashas  and  Beys — Division  of  Private  Property — Civil 
Administration — Judicial  Courts — Monasteries  on  Mount  Athos — 
Pilgrims — Expounders  of  the  Law,  Civil  and  Religious — ^Mohammed 
n. — Educational  Institutions 135 

CHAPTER  IX. 

THE  FAIiL  OF  THE  BYZANTINE  EMPIEE. 

Siege  of  Constantinople — Constantine  Palaeologus  and  Mohammed  H. — 
Death  of  the  Greek  Emperor — A  Monster  Cannon — Fall  of  the 
Byz£intine  Empire  155 

CHAPTER  X. 

MODEKN  TTJHKISH  HISTOKT. 

Effect  of  the  Introduction  of  Artillery  on  the  Numerical  Strength  of 
Armies — Turkish  Anarchy — The  Divan — Abdul  Medjid — Treaty  of 
Paris — Turkish  Loan — Insurrection  in  Servia — ^Historical  Evidence 
of  Russian  Intrigue — Difficulties  of  Reform 165 

CHAPTER  XI. 

EN  KOUTE  AGAIN. 

Turkish  Cavalry — The  Chatal  Dagh — Slivmia — Cloth  Factories — Turkish 
Justice — A  Turkish  Form  of  Friendship — Geology  of  the  Balkan — 
Land  of  the  Bulgarian  Atrocities — A  Turk  in  Adversity — A  Hurri- 
cane— Teni  Zaghra — Turkish  Officials — Eski  Zaghra — Anarchy  in 
Turkey — Silk  Factory — A  Bedridden  Interpreter — Kezanlik — Attar 
of  Rose 199 

CHAPTER  XH. 

ACROSS  THE  BALKAN. 

Freedom  of  a  Morning  Ride — Jlounted  Police — A  Turkish  Castle — 
Physical  Aspect  of  Turkey — Central  Watershed — Climate — Destruc- 
tion of  Forests — Geological  Formation — Coal  and  Minerals — Roman 
Roads — Lovtcha — Good  Quarters — Tirnova — An  Energetic  Governor 
— A  Turkish  Resident  Landed  Proprietor — Hawking-rAi  Turkish 
Dinner — A  Lonely  Ride 225 


X  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  Xm. 

OTTOMAN    SLAVES 

FAQE 

Ancient  Slaves — Their  Religion — Their  Conversion  to  Christianity — 
Battle  of  Kossova — Assassination — Kara  George — His  Character — 
Rebellious  Janizaries — Intiigue — Milosch — Russian  Poison — Despot- 
ism and  Misery — A  Reign  of  Intrigue — Peace  and  Contentment  under 
Alexander — More  Intrigue  and  Rebellion — Death  of  Prince  Michael.  240 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

TtTRKEY'S  AEMY  AND  NAVY. 

Turkish   Military  Organization — Turkish    Army Its    Composition — 

Military  Education — Nizam — Ichtiat,  Redifs — Cavalry  and  Artillery 
Reserves — Material  of  War — Pay  of  Officers — Turkish  Navy — Iron- 
clads— Naval  Education — Hobart  Pasha 258 

CHAPTER  XV. 

TUEKET  AS  A  MXLITAET  POWER, 

Ancient  Organization  of  the  Turkish  Army — Strategical  Bases  of  the 
Russian  and  Turkish  Armies — Turkish  Fortresses — Passes  of  the 
Balkan — Roads  of  Communication — Plan  of  Defense  for  Turkey — 
Blockade  of  Russian  Ports   279 

CHAPTER  XVI. 

FKOM  THOYAN  TO  SAMAKOV. 

Brigands — A  Doctor  Shot — Turkish  Hospitality — A  Mountain  Pass — 
Slatitza — The  Disease  of  Procrastination  —  ' '  Cut-em-ups  "  —  The 
Trials  of  Interpretation — A  Long  Ride — The  Great  Watershed — The 
Meeting  of  the  Mountains — Plains  of  Sofia — The  Railway — The  Rilo 
Dagh — Samakov — The  American  Mission — Iron — Lovely  Scenery- 
Alarms — A  Shake-Down — The  Monastery  of  Rilo — Deer-Stalking — 
An  Accident 298 

CHAPTER  XVn. 

THE  ALBANIANS. 

Their  Origin — Gheghas  and  Toskas — Illyrians  and  Macedonian  Phalanx 
— Scanderbeg — Distribution  of  Albanian  Tribes — Their  Religions — 
Viss-Blood  Feuds — Itinerant  Trade — Rascians — Toskas — Albanians 
as  Soldiers — The  Pasha  of  Scodra 317 


II  ¥) 


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SwJ&*  Bmr^BottAfM. 


TURKEY. 


CHAPTER  I. 

FEOM  LIVEEPOOL  TO  CONSTANTINOPLE. 

From  Liverpool  to  Constantinople — My  Fellow-passengers — A  Strange  Hobby 
— First  view  of  Troy — The  Golden  Horn — I  am  seized  upon  by  Far  Away 
Moses — Capabilities  of  Turkish  Porters — Comparative  Merits  of  the 
Peran  and  Therapian Hotels — Trips  on  the  Bosphorus — "  Fire" — Variety 
of  Nationalities — An  Ethnological  Pill — Race  and  Religion. 

A  VARIETY  of  causes,  acting  upon  a  nomadic  nature, 
impelled  me  in  tlie  year  1874  again  to  "move  on," 
and  on  this  occasion  in  a  direction  which  led  through 
Turkey  in  Europe. 

Travelers  in  that  country  had  boldly  asserted  that  there 
were  no  roads.  I  therefore  provided  myself  with  all  the 
necessary  paraphernalia  for  leading  a  gypsy  life  ;  and 
thinking  it  wiser  not  to  be  separated  from  my  baggage,  I 
selected  the  sea-route  to  Constantinople  by  the  Cunard 
steamers  from  Liverpool. 

In  traveling  through  unfrequented  countries  it  is,  gen- 
erally speaking,  unadvisable  to  take  an  English  servant, 
as  they  are  so  accustomed  to  luxuries  that  they  are  neither 
able  nor  willing  to  adapt  themselves  to  the  vicissitudes  of 
a  campaign  life,  and  it  too  often  happens  that  the  master 
has  to  attend  to  the  wants  of  his  servant,  instead  of  the 
servant  assisting  the  master.  This  difficulty  may  be  over- 
come by  taking  some  well-known  lad,  who  is  apt  to  learn 
quickly,  and  who,  like  a  piece  of  soft  clay,  can  be  mold- 


2  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

ed  at  will.  I  therefore  selected  a  Chesliire  boy,  who  had 
been  some  time  in  my  service,  and  who  had  never  left  the 
neighborhood  of  his  native  village  ;  and  although  he  ac- 
companied me  through  all  my  travels,  he  never  was  heard 
to  grumble. 

In  time  he  learned  to  make  himself  most  useful,  and 
having  acquired  the  Turkish  language  with  amazing  rapid- 
ity, he  soon  became  a  great  favorite  with  all  classes  of 
natives,  whether  Christian  or  Mussulman.  John  Lloyd  is 
his  name,  and  I  shall  always  designate  him  as  John. 

The  27th  of  June  saw  us,  "  bag  and  baggage,"  on  board 
a  splendid  vessel  of  nearly  2,000  tons  burden,  and  steam- 
ing away  from  Liverpool,  on  one  of  those  lovely  summer 
days  which  seem  to  have  been  specially  created  to  thaw 
the  icy  English  nature  produced  by  March  east  winds  and 
fogs. 

As  we  glided  along  the  coast  over  a  perfectly  calm  sea,, 
familiar  places  kept  rising  into  view,  and  formed,  as  it 
were,  a  panoramic  history  of  pleasant  epochs  of  my  life. 
Leaning  over  the  side,  I  had  given  myself  up  to  reverie 
and  idleness,  when  I  was  suddenly  and  roughly  awakened 
by  a  sailor  dropping  a  coil  of  rope  ui)on  my  unfavorite 
toe.  Why  will  sailors  do  this  ?  I  have  noticed  that  on 
board  ship  no  sooner  does  an  unsick  passenger  sit  down  to 
make  himself  comfortable  on  deck,  than  some  expectant 
tar  immediately  becomes  seized  with  all  the  industries, 
and  commences  polishing,  rubbing,  and  advancing  with 
an  oiled  rag,  until  the  passenger  has  to  move,  but  only 
again  to  submit  to  a  similar  attack,  until  he  is  driven  in 
despair  to  his  bunk  below,  there  to  bury  his  head  in  the 
pillow,  and  to  reflect  upon  the  laws  of  motion  and  their 
relation  to  the  digestive  organs. 

My  fellow-passengers  were  easily  counted,  as  they  con- 
sisted only  of  an  Armenian  male,  and  a  real  live  Anglo- 
Saxon  in  the  literal  sense  of  the  word,  for  his  father  was 
English  and  mother  Saxon. 

The  passage  was  monotonous,  and  calmer  than  most  sea- 
voyages.    The  ship  was  admirably  appointed,  both  as  to 


FROM  LIVERPOOL  TO  COI^STANTINOPLE.  3 

officers  and  men,  and  tlie  food  was  of  that  British  type 
which  recognizes  merit  in  quantity  rather  than  quality. 
The  wines  were  extremely  bad,  and,  of  course,  extremely 
expensive. 

The  chief  officer  was  quite  a  curiosity  in  mentology.  He 
was  one  of  those  characters  which  would  have  stuck,  like 
a  limpet  upon  a  rock,  upon  the  imagination  of  Dickens, 
and  would  have  afterwards  been  immortalized  in  one  of 
his  novels. 

A  hard-headed  Scotchman,  a  first-rate  sailor  and  navi- 
gator, he,  like  many  other  people,  had  his  craze,  which 
consisted  in  looking  down  with  lofty  contempt  upon  such 
deluded  mortals  as  supposed  that  light  was  derived  from 
the  sun  !  Yet  he  gazed  at  that  luminary  day  after  day  as 
he  took  its  meridian  altitude,  and  was  obliged  to  temper 
his  vision  with  the  usual  piece  of  dark-colored  glass. 

I  endeavored  to  reason  with  him  on  the  subject,  but 
found  his  mind  quite  impenetrable  upon  that  point.  You 
might  as  well  have  attempted  to  engrave  a  piece  of  glass 
with  a  feather. 

"  But  how,"  I  asked,  "  do  you  account  for  light,  if  it  is 
not  derived  from  the  sun  ?  " 

"  Weel,"  he  said,  "  it  just  comes  from  the  eer ;  but  yer 
will  be  knowing  all  about  it  some  day." 

He  was  of  a  taciturn  nature,  but  of  the  few  remarks 
which  he  did  make,  the  usual  one  was,  "  Weel,  and  so  yer 
think  that  light  comes  from  the  sun,  do  yer  ?  Weel,  weel ; 
ha  !  ha  !  "  and  he  would  turn  away  with  a  contemptuous 
chuckle. 

When  not  on  duty,  or  eating,  or  sleeping,  all  his  spare 
time  was  occui^ied  in  bringing  forth  mysterious  sounds,  as 
of  the  trickling  of  water  through  a  pipe,  from  that  exceed- 
ingly windy  instrument  called  a  flute ;  and  the  captain 
informed  me  that  he  had  kno^vn  him  for  twenty  years, 
and  that  he  had  always  fondled  that  flute,  but  had  not 
yet  arrived  at  a  tune.  Yet  this  man  was  a  clever  sailor 
and  a  most  dependable  officer.  He  stands  out  as  a  bril- 
liant example  of  a  man  with  a  fixed  idea ;  and  it  would 


4  TURKEY  m  EUROPE. 

be  an  interesting  scientific  study  to  endeavor  to  show  how 
it  comes  that  his  mind  has  the  power  of  observing  cause 
and  effect  generally,  but  not  upon  that  particular  object 
which  naturally  has  such  a  powerful  effect  upon  the 
senses. 

We  touched  for  a  few  hours  at  Gibraltar  and  Malta, 
and  in  like  manner  at  Syra,  a  busy  and  thriving  Greek 
town,  which  looks  from  the  sea  like  a  great  pile  of  white 
hat-boxes.  It  possesses  historical  interest  as  the  birth- 
place of  Achilles,  and  our  visit  was  an  appropriate  prep- 
aration for  the  view  of  the  plain  of  Troy  on  approaching 
the  Dardanelles. 

On  an  after  occasion  I  had  the  pleasure  of  visiting 
ancient  Troy  and  the  excavations  of  Dr.  Schliemann,  under 
the  kind  and  learned  guidance  of  the  late  Mr.  Frederick 
Calvert,  a  gentleman  deeply  respected  and  regretted  by 
every  class  of  native  in  the  whole  neighborhood.  The  in- 
fluence which  he  had  obtained  over  the  people  was  most 
remarkable,  and  it  may  be  taken  as  an  example  of  the 
possibility  of  uniting  all  classes  of  Turkish  subjects  in 
ready  obedience  to  a  single  will,  when  once  a  feeling  of 
confidence  is  established.  Mr.  Calvert  had  a  large  farm 
in  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  Troy,  and  he  was  sur- 
rounded by  Greeks,  Osmanlis,  and  Youruks,  the  descend- 
ants of  the  Abassides  Turks,  who  in  their  nomad  wander- 
ings spread  over  Asia  Minor.  The  Youruks  are  a  wild 
and  lawless  race,  but  they  were  ready  to  assist  Mr.  Cal- 
vert in  any  way  that  lay  in  their  power.  He  was  a  sort 
of  patriarch  amongst  both  Christians  and  Mussulmans,  and 
all  looked  to  him  for  advice.  He  was  ever  ready  to  attend 
at  the  bed  of  sickness,  and  his  skill  in  medicine  was  a 
great  boon  to  the  people,  and  the  doors  even  of  a  harem 
were  thrown  open  to  obtain  the  advantage  of  his  medical 
treatment.  Wherever  he  appeared  there  the  faces  of  the 
people  immediately  lighted  up  with  a  kindly  welcome, 
and  it  seemed  as  though  they  could  not  sufficiently  ex- 
press the  gratitude  and  respect  they  felt  for  him.  His 
bailiff  and  all  the  farm-laborers  were  Greeks,  and  he  in- 


TROY.  5 

formed  me  tliat  lie  found  them  most  lionest  and  industri- 
ous ;  tliey  certainly  seemed  to  work  with  a  will. 

On  tlie  supposed  site  of  ancient  Troy  four  separate  sets 
of  buildings  are  piled  one  above  the  other,  like  the  houses 
children  make  with  a  pack  of  cards  ;  but  it  is  a  stretch  of 
the  imagination  to  designate  them  as  cities.  The  whole 
area  upon  which  they  stand  does  not  cover  an  acre  of 
ground,  but  the  suxoerposition  of  the  buildings  is  most 
curious  and  interesting. 

Each  town,  if  we  may  so  call  it,  can  be  distinctly  traced 
one  above  the  other,  as  well  as  the  charred  remains  of  the 
fire  which  must  have  been  the  cause  of  their  successive 
destruction  at  great  intervals  of  time.  It  would  almost 
seem,  from  the  appearance  of  the  remains,  that  one  town 
was  built  upon  the  rubbish  which  covered  the  ruins  of  the 
houses  below,  under  the  supposition  at  the  time  that  it 
was  a  natural  foundation,  and  in  ignorance  of  the  busy 
world  which  in  former  ages  had  existed  beneath  the  new 
buildings.  Dr.  Schliemann  cut  a  section  from  top  to  bot- 
tom through  the  hill  or  mound  which  contains  all  four 
towns,  and  consequently  laid  them  bare  to  view.  In  some 
of  the  houses  may  be  seen  the  great  earthenware  jars 
which  were  used  for  keeping  the  household  stores,  and 
the  eye  is  attracted  by  numerous  small  and  smooth  dark 
stones  dotted  about  here  and  there  in  the  earth,  and  which 
prove,  on  closer  inspection,  to  be  the  hand-stones  used  by 
the  women  for  grinding  corn.  They  are  of  a  shape  which 
places  them  prior  to  the  ancient  period  when  circular 
hand-stones  were  used  for  a  similar  purpose. 

From  the  remains  of  pottery  found  in  the  lowest  town, 
it  is  supposed  that  the  inhabitants  were  in  a  higher  state 
of  civilization  than  those  of  the  town  immediately  above  it, 
and  who  lived — who  can  say  how  many  ages  afterwards  ? 
A  long  white  line  about  a  foot  in  depth  proves  to  be  formed 
of  the  cockle-sheUs  thro^^Ti  away  by  the  inhabitants, 
who  were  evidently  partial  to  that  kind  of  shell-fish. 
The  fourth  or  upj)ermost  town  was  without  doubt  that  of 
new  Troy  ;  and  many  remains  of  magnificent  white  mar- 


6  TURRET  IN  EUROPE. 

ble  columns  attest  an  age  of  art  and  poetry,  and  stand  out 
in  strong  contrast  to  the  comparatively  rude  buildings 
wMcli  lie  below. 

As  the  eye  turns  from  one  to  the  other,  the  mind  dwells 
in  wonder  at  the  countless  ages  which  have  intervened  be- 
tween the  busy  throng  and  daily  task  in  each  town,  and 
I  was  forcibly  reminded  of  that  passage  of  the  Koran 
which  says,  "Each  nation  hath  its  allotted  term ;  when 
the  term  has  arrived,  man  is  powerless  to  hasten  or  retard 
it." 

I  will  not  touch  upon  the  controversy  as  to  the  site  of 
ancient  Troy,  which  is  so  exhaustively  discussed  in  Dr. 
Schliemann's  work  published  by  Mr.  Murray,  but  return 
to  the  Dardanelles  to  pursue  my  journey. 

Daybreak  of  the  fifteenth  day  from  leaving  Liverpool 
revealed  the  beautiful  domes  and  minarets  of  the  capital 
of  the  Sultans,  rising  above  a  sea  of  mist  like  jewels  on 
a  bed  of  down.  Soon  the  white  was  turned  to  pink  as  the 
rays  of  the  sun  added  their  glory,  the  tall,  dark  cypress- 
trees  loomed  out  like  gaunt  giants,  the  mist  grew  into 
forms,  and  as  the  vessel  glided  on,  the  capital  of  the  old 
Byzantine  Empire  was  revealed  in  all  its  gTandeur. 

Time  here,  as  elsewhere,  had  wrought  a  change.  Large 
blocks  of  picturesque  Oriental  buildings,  which  I  remem- 
bered to  have  seen  during  the  Crimean  War,  were  gone,  and 
in  their  place  there  stood  great,  ugly,  modern  edifices,  de- 
void of  all  pretensions  to  architectural  beauty,  and  which 
destroyed  the  general  effect  of  Oriental  scenery.  They 
seemed  to  say,  "Look  at  us!  We  are  the  produce  of 
the  Hatt-i-humayoun,  the  Hatt-i-cherifs,  and  the  iLradets  ! 
We  are  Stamboul  reformed  upon  a  Christian  model !  " 

They  might  well  be  accepted  as  fit  symbols  of  the  ref- 
ormation. They  are  modern,  ugly,  and  imperfect  imita- 
tions of  Western  edifices,  and  in  conjunction  with  the 
older  and  Eastern  style,  look  out  of  place.  The  very 
cypress-trees  seemed  ashamed  of  the  parxenus,  and,  as  if 
to  complete  the  desecration  of  the  beauties  of  the  Bospho- 
rus,  innumerable  small  steamers  were  puffing  their  black 


DRAGOMEN  IN  CONSTANTINOPLE.  7 

smoke  in  every  direction,  and  destroying  all  possibility 
of  romance  by  suggesting  recollections  of  the  Thames. 

But  this  is  progress  !  I  could  not  help  picturing  some 
white-bearded  old  Turk,  just  ruiaed  by  speculating  in  the 
bonds  of  his  country's  debt,  yet  calmly  gazing  from  his 
balcony  over  the  scene,  and  as  he  thought  of  the  days  of 
his  youth,  when  his  country  owed  no  man  aught,  and  the 
Osmanli  went  his  way  in  peace,  he  might  syllogize  in  this 
wise: — 

"The  Frank  hath  said  that  progress  benefits  mankind. 
This  is  progress  :  therefore  I  am  benefited.  Marshallah ! 
the   Giaour  is  a  base  infidel  and  a  dog." 

The  traveler,  on  his  arrival  at  Constantinople,  vdll  be 
surprised  to  find  the  number  of  Eastern  acquaintances  he 
possesses,  even  though  he  may  never  have  visited  that  city. 
No  sooner  is  the  ship  free  of  the  health  ofiicer  than  a  hu- 
man tide  of  nations  pours  on  board,  and  he  is  assailed  by 
a  perfect  babel  of  voices. 

"How  d'ye  do,  sir?  All  right,  sir.  I  know  you  very 
well.  You  know  me,  sir;  I'm  Far  Away  Moses.  I've 
been  exj)ecting  you  for  long  time,  sir.  All  right,  sir ; 
come  along."  "I'm  Demetri,  sir.  British  Consul  sent 
me  for  you,  sir.  AU  right,  sir.  ^Vhere's  your  luggage, 
sir?    Come  along." 

If  the  traveler  is  wise,  he  will  immediately  show  a 
proper  respect  for  his  Old  Testament  by  selecting  Far 
Away  Moses,  and  at  once  confide  himself  to  his  care.  The 
rest  will  then  drop  oif  like  satisfied  leeches,  and  he  can 
quietly  and  confidentially  confer  with  his  new  Hebrew 
friend,  who  had  been  so  long  and  anxiously  expecting  his 
arrival.  He  will  then  discover  that  it  is  a  case  of  mistaken 
identity  ;  that  Far  Away  Moses  mistook  him  for  his  good 
friend  Captain  Spendaway,  whose  testimonials  he  pro- 
duces, together  with  many  others,  and  assures  the  trav- 
eler that  he  will  serve  him  as  a  faithful  dragoman  to  the 
full  as  well  as  he  served  his  former  masters. 

As  he  places  his  foot  upon  Turkish  soil,  the  traveler  will 
be  at  once  initiated  into  the  mysteries  of  backshish. 


8  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

Far  Away  Moses  will  liave  provided  him  witli  either  a 
boat  or  caiqne  in  which  to  glide  over  to  a  neighboring 
customs  landing.  Forthwith  the  important  custom-house 
official  appears,  and  looks  partially  satisfied  on  seeing  Far 
Away  Moses,  and  the  satisfaction  is  completed  as  that 
individual  places  a  coin  in  the  official' s  hand. 

The  official  goes  to  one  of  the  trunks,  looks  doubtfully 
at  it,  and  then  feels  it  outside  somewhat  in  the  way  that 
a  connoisseur  would  pinch  a  fat  ox.  It  is  enough  !  What- 
ever doubt  there  might  have  been  upon  his  mind  as  to  that 
trunk  containing  taxable  articles  has  vanished,  and  the 
luggage  is  free  to  pass.  The  traveler  must  not  suppose 
that  this  has  been  an  expensive  operation.  The  dignified 
official  is  a  Turk,  and  by  the  law  of  the  Koran  all  the 
faithful  are  equal ;  and  therefore  his  dignity  is  not  ruffled 
by  accepting  a  dirty  sixpence,  just  like  an  ordinary  hamal, 
or  one  of  our  own  faithful  "  railway  porters." 

Far  Away  Moses  now  proceeds  to  call  the  justly  cele- 
brated Turkish  hamals,  or  porters,  to  carry  the  luggage  to 
the  hotel. 

If  the  traveler  has  only  two  large  and  exceedingly  heavy 
trunks,  a  large  bag,  a  gun  case,  a  bed,  and  a  few  odds  and 
ends  of  articles,  one  hamal  will  be  sufficient,  but  if  he  has 
as  much  luggage  as  would  load  an  ordinary  English  cart, 
then  he  will  require  two  of  these  men.  The  weights  which 
they  can  carry  is  really  marvelous.  I  had  a  large  deal 
case  containing  ammunition,  besides  many  other  ponder- 
ous articles,  and  which  was  so  heavy  that  I  was  doubtful 
whether  two  men  would  be  able  to  carry  it  up  the  steep 
streets  of  Galata. 

To  my  astonishment  it  was  placed  upon  the  back  of  one 
hamal,  and  on  the  top  of  it  a  heavy  portmanteau  ! 

I  thought  of  the  Society  for  the  Prevention  of  Cruelty 
to  Animals,  but  my  pity  was  misplaced,  for  the  hamal, 
without  being  asked  to  do  so,  took  up  my  leather  bag  in 
one  hand  as  he  moved  away  with  his  wonderful  load,  and 
seemed  to  think  nothing  of  it. 

I  should  strongly  advise  a  visitor  to  Constantinople  dur- 


TUERAPIA  AND  CONSTANTINOPLE.  9 

ing  eitlier  the  spring  or  summer  months,  not  to  go  to  the 
Pera  hotels.  They  are  dear  and  offensively  odorate,  while 
at  Therapia  there  is  an  excellent  hotel  on  the  edge  of  the 
Bosphorus,  and  commanding  much  of  its  lovely  scenery. 
I  stopped  three  days  at  the  latter  place.  The  table  d'hote 
was  good,  the  breakfasts,  etc.,  ample.  I  drank  the  wine 
of  the  country,  which  is  given  gratis,  and  which,  mixed 
with  water,  is  most  wholesome  and  refreshing,  while,  taken 
pure,  it  is  sufficiently  inebriating  to  those  who  may  hap- 
pen to  be  given  to  strong  drinks. 

On  leaving  the  hotel  I  asked  for  my  bill,  and  the  sim- 
plicity of  the  document  quite  gave  me  a  shock,  for  I 
thought  there  must  surely  be  some  terrible  after-reckon- 
ing ;  but  no,  it  ran  thus  :  "To  three  days'  board  and  lodg- 
ing, 45  francs." 

Let  it  be  recorded  in  golden  letters  that  the  landlady 
of  this  establishment  is  English,  and  her  name  is  Mrs. 
Petala. 

Comfortable  steamers  ply  between  Therapia  and  Con- 
stantinople for  the  sum  of  fourpence,  and  the  trips  back- 
wards and  forwards  along  the  smooth  and  beautiful  waters 
of  the  Bosphorus  are  most  enjoyable. 

By  this  means  all  the  sights  of  Constantinople  can  be 
seen  by  day,  and  the  pure  air  and  charms  of  the  Bospho- 
rus enjoyed  by  night. 

A  trip  in  one  of  these  small  steamers  affords  a  good  idea 
of  the  great  stride  which  of  late  years  has  been  made  in 
Turkey  by  relinquishing  many  of  the  prejudices  of  cus- 
tom. 

Almost  every  nation  and  religion  are  sometimes  repre- 
sented amongst  the  passengers  of  one  steamer,  and  al- 
though the  fore  part  of  the  deck  is  reserved  for  Turkish 
and  Christian  women,  yet  the  former,  with  their  thin 
yashmaks,  or  vails,  jostle  and  mix  with  the  Giaours  on 
entering  and  leaving  the  vessel — a  possibility  which  would 
not  have  been  even  dreamt  of  thirty  years  ago.  Again,  in 
the  streets  of  Constantinople  the  ladies  of  the  harem  may 
be  seen  driving  about  in  their  handsome  broughams  to  do 


10  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

their  shopping,  and  with  their  faces  enveloped  with  so 
thin  a  yashmak  that,  like  a  slight  clond  over  the  sun,  it 
but  tempers  the  brightness  M^hicli  lies  behind. 

In  their  private  life  also  a  marvelous  change  of  custom 
has  occurred. 

They  are  for  the  most  part  decked  out  in  the  latest  Paris 
fashions,  instead  of  the  Turkish  dress,  and  they  delight  to 
receive  the  visits  of  English  and  other  foreign  ladies — an 
innovation  which  a  few  years  ago  was  of  very  rare  occur- 
rence. When  once  the  stone  is  set  rolling  who  can  say 
where  it  will  stop  ?  and  a  few  years  more  may  see  after- 
noon teas  in  Turldsh  harems  a  favorite  reunion  for  both 
sexes.     Inshallah  !  it  will  come  to  pass. 

A  visitor  to  Constantinople,  if  he  remains  for  a  few  days, 
is  almost  sure  to  hear  the  cry  of  "Yanghen  var,"  or 
"Fire,"  as  one  occurs  about  every  week. 

I  will  not  assert  as  a  fact  what  was  told  me  as  such, 
namely,  that  the  whole  of  Constantinople  is  burnt  down 
every  twenty  years  by  means  of  weekly  fires,  but  the  de- 
struction in  this  way  must  be  very  great.  During  my  stay 
there  upwards  of  two  hundred  and  fifty  houses  were 
burnt  in  one  day,  notwithstanding  the  active  and  very 
efficient  exertions  of  the  fire  brigade  ;  but  the  streets  are 
so  narrow,  and  so  much  wood  is  used  in  the  construction 
of  the  houses,  that  it  is  exceedingly  difficult  to  check  the 
progress  of  the  flames  in  a  high  wind. 

As  I  was  looking  at  the  wreck  of  a  fire,  I  observed  a 
Turk  quietly  poking  with  a  stick  amongst  the  ashes  of 
what  had  once  been  a  house,  as  though  he  was  seeking 
for  something.  I  found  that  he  was  the  owner  of  the 
building,  which  had  contained  all  that  he  had  in  the  world, 
and  that  he  literally  stood  by  the  complete  wreck  of  his 
whole  fortune.  He  did  not,  however,  exhibit  any  signs  of 
grief  or  dejection,  and  to  my  inquiries  as  to  what  he  in- 
tended to  do,  he  replied  that  his  misfortune  had  been 
"  written  upon  his  forehead,"  that  God  was  merciful,  and 
would  provide  for  the  future.  He  was  right,  for  the 
Turks  are  exceedingly  charitable  to  each  other,  and  are 


RACE.  11 

ever  ready  to  assist  a  distressed  Mussulman.  Another 
good  trait  in  tlie  character  of  these  anti-human  specimens 
of  humanity  was  manifested  on  this  occasion. 

From  amongst  the  crowd  a  bare-footed  boy,  who,  gamin 
like,  was  scrambling  over  the  ruins  in  search  of  spoil,  sud- 
denly uttered  a  piercing  cry,  and  rushed  shrieking  over 
the  ruins  until  he  fell.  Several  Turks  ran  forward  to  his 
assistance  with  every  sign  of  commiseration,  but  the 
Christian  Pharisees  passed  heedless  by,  and  merely 
shrugged  their  shoulders.  The  poor  boy  had  wallied 
into  the  red-hot  embers,  which  had  almost  burnt  off  the 
soles  of  his  bare  feet. 

The  fire  of  fires  was  that  of  1870,  when  upwards  of  three 
thousand  houses  were  burnt  to  the  ground. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  sights  for  a  visitor  to  Con- 
stantinople is  to  stand  on  the  bridge  of  boats  between 
Galata  and  Stamboul,  and  watch  the  crowd  of  many  na- 
tions that  passes  before  him. 

It  seems  as  though  all  the  nations  of  the  universe  had 
agreed  to  meet  and  here  mingle  in  a  common  stream  ;  and 
this  leads  me  to  consider  the  various  races  which  inhabit 
the  country  through  which  we  are  about  to  travel.  To 
gain  an  intimate  knowledge  of  Turkey  in  Europe  and  her 
peoples,  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  examine  whence  and 
how  the  great  variety  of  races  came  to  be  there,  for  no 
country  in  Europe,  excepting,  perhaps,  Transylvania, 
exhibits  such  marked  and  distinctive  characteristics  of 
many  of  the  races  of  the  world. 

The  i^opulation  of  Turkey  is  made  up  of  a  variety  of 
nations,  scattered  over  the  whole  country,  and  yet  form- 
ing themselves  into  groups  according  to  the  number  of 
units  they  contain.  ISTo  locality  can  be  found  where  the 
population  is  exclusively  of  the  same  nationality,  but  a 
rival  race  crops  up  here  and  there  and  jostles  its  neighbor. 
We  find,  for  instance,  a  quarter  where  the  majority  of  the 
population  is  Bulgarian,  but  amongst  them  in  consid- 
able  numbers  are  Turks,  Greeks,  Circassians,  and  Gypsies. 
In  another  quarter  the  majority  are  Albanians,  but  they 


12  TURKEY  m  EUROPE. 

again  have  to  bear  the  friction  of  Bulgarians,  Wallachs, 
Greeks,  and  Turks  ;  and  so  on  all  over  the  country.  Each 
of  these  nations  has  its  own  language,  religion,  and 
customs;  and  it  therefore  follows  that  the  difficulty  of 
governing  the  mass  lies  in  a  direct  ratio  to  the  number  of 
races  represented  in  it ;  and  when  it  is  borne  in  mind  that 
in  Europe  alone  no  less  than  eight  distinct  nationalities, 
each  with  a  considerable  population,  and  several  others  of 
smaller  degree,  can  claim  the  rights  of  Turkish  subjects, 
some  idea  may  be  formed  of  the  obstacles  in  the  path  of 
good  government  in  Turkey. 

As  we  shall  have  to  consider  the  circumstances  which 
have  rooted  these  various  races  in  the  laud,  it  will  be  well 
if,  in  the  first  place,  we  determine  what  we  actually  mean 
by  the  term  "  race." 

Taken  in  the  abstract,  there  can  be  no  difficulty  in  de- 
fining our  meaning,  as  when  we  speak  of  the  "human 
race  ;"  but  when  we  come  to  deal  with  what  we  call  races 
of  men,  and  seek  to  determine  their  source,  we  at  once  find 
that  the  single  thread  we  are  endeavoring  to  trace  to  its  end 
is  but  the  Strand  of  a  larger  cord,  which  again  becomes  en- 
twined as  a  part  of  a  still  larger  rope.  Thus  we  find  two 
antagonistic  races  side  by  side  ;  the  one  we  call  Turk,  and 
the  other  Bulgarian,  but  when  we  trace  them  to  their 
source  they  merge  one  into  the  other  ;  and  so  it  is  with 
others.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  cause  of  this  effect 
may  be  traced  to  that  great  tide  of  emigration  which  has 
flowed  from  East  to  West  as  far  back  as  history  affords  us 
knowledge  of  the  human  race  until  the  present  day,  but 
which  appears  now  to  be  at  the  flood,  and  to  be  about  to  ebb 
in  the  contrary  direction.  The  tide  has  flowed  from  China 
across  Asia,  Europe,  and  America,  until  it  has  arrived  at 
California,  and  completed  the  circle.  But  we  now,  for  the 
first  time,  see  a  strong  tendency  to  an  Eastern  emigration 
in  the  hundreds  of  thousands  of  Chinese  who  are  pouring 
into  California,  and  the  increase  is  so  rapid  that  it  bids 
fair  to  rival  the  tide  coming  from  the  opposite  direction. 
The  Americans  are  making  strenuous  efforts  to  check  this 


AEYA.  13 

Chinese  immigration,  and  it  will  be  interesting  to  watch 
the  effect. 

The  great  Aryan  race,  starting  from  India,  overran 
Europe  and  part  of  Africa,  leaving  colonies  here  and  there 
according  as  the  soil  or  climate  attracted  them.  These 
colonies,  seizing,  probably,  the  women  of  the  antochthe- 
nes  of  the  various  countries,  grew  in  course  of  time  and 
expanded.  The  effect  of  climate  and  pursuits  gradually 
altered  the  character  as  well  as  the  appearance  of  the  im- 
migrant populations.  Conquest,  again,  introduced  new 
blood  and  new  languages,  separate  despotisms  welded  the 
units  of  the  separate  parts  into  separate  masses,  and  in 
such  manner  were  formed  the  germs  of  most  of  the  races 
of  Europe.  When,  then,  we  speak  of  a  race  of  men,  we 
do  not  mean  that  it  has  existed  from  all  time  on  the  soil 
upon  which  it  lives,  nor  that  it  inherits  the  attributes  of  a 
single  pair,  but  that  it  is  an  ancient  family  of  men  of 
marked  characteristics  whose  pedigree  is  obscure. 

A  very  powerful  factor  in  maintaining  the  purity  of  a 
race  is  religion,  which,  from  its  strongly  conservative 
tendency,  generally  prevents  one  sect  marrying  into  ano- 
ther of  a  different  creed.  This  is  specially  manifest  in 
Turkey,  where  a  village  may  frequently  be  found  inhab- 
ited by  pure  Turks,  and  near  to  it  another  occujDied  by 
Bulgarians.  They  have  been  neighbors  for  nearly  400 
years,  and  yet  each  keeps  its  distinctive  character.  The 
one  is  Mohammedan  and  the  other  Christian,  but  give 
them  the  same  religion,  and  a  century  would  probably 
amalgamate  them  into  one  people. 

The  effect  of  religion  upon  race  sometimes  gives  rise  to 
very  erroneous  ideas  as  to  nationality.  For  instance,  in 
Bulgaria  every  Mohammedan  village  is  called  Turkish,  and 
it  is  commonly  supposed  that  the  inhabitants  are  Turks, 
while,  in  point  of  fact,  they  are  Bulgarians,  who  were 
converted  or  perverted  at  the  conquest  of  the  country.  It 
is  the  same  in  Bosnia  :  the  Turks  of  that  country  are,  for 
the  most  part,  Mohammedan  Slaves,  who  at  the  conquest 
adopted  the  religion  of  the  conquerors  in  order  to  escape 


14  TURKEY  m  EUROPE. 

from  persecution.  It  is  interesting  to  note  tlie  change 
whicli  difference  in  religion  lias  produced  upon  people  of 
tlie  same  race,  and  living  upon  the  same  ground.  The  in- 
habitants of  a  Bulgarian  Mohammedan  village  differ  in 
many  respects  from  their  neighbors  of  the  same  race  who 
are  Christians  ;  the  former  lose  the  high  cheek-bones  and 
square  faces  of  the  latter,  probably  from  intermarriage 
with  Circassian  and  Turkish  blood.  They  are  also  cleaner 
in  their  persons  and  general  habits,  and,  it  must  be  ac- 
knowledged, more  truthful  and  sober. 

It  is  not  my  intention  to  attempt  a  learned  disquisition 
on  ethnology,  or  to  trouble  the  reader  with  detailed  lists 
of  tribes  which  have  grown  into  nations,  and  of  others 
which  have  been  blotted  out,  but  it  will  be  apposite  to  the 
subject  to  take  a  general  view  of  the  sources  from  which 
have  flowed  the  nations  whose  acquaintance  we  are  about 
to  make.  To  do  this  we  must  carry  back  our  thoughts  to 
those  earliest  dates  of  history  whose  pages  have  been  filled 
by  the  studies  of  philologists,  and  by  these  we  find  that 
nearly  all  the  present  races  of  Europe  are  what  is  called 
Indo-European  or  Aryan  ;  that  the  great  stream,  starting 
from  India,  flowed  on  and  si^read  over  Europe  ;  and  that 
the  people  who  composed  it  were  of  sedentary  rather  than 
nomadic  habits.  Where  nature  offered  attractions  and  ad- 
vantages there  they  halted,  and  these  "tillers  of  the  land  " 
colonized  until  they  overflowed  to  further  genial  soils. 
But  even  at  that  far-distant  period  we  cannot  suppose  that 
they  found  the  land  a  silent  waste,  and  that  they  quietly 
took  possession  of  ground  which  no  man  had  ever  trod  ; 
on  the  contrary,  it  is  far  more  probable  that  the  new- 
comers won  their  way  step  by  step  with  sword  or  club  in 
hand. 

The  conquered  aborigines  who  were  not  put  to  the 
sword,  or  made  slaves  as  men,  or  wives  as  women,  would 
probably  fly  before  the  advancing  hosts,  and  seek  refuge 
and  safety  in  the  natural  defenses  of  mountain  ranges. 
Accordingly  we  find  remnants,  even  in  the  present  day, 
of  ancient  peoples  who  stand  alone  and  cannot  be  classified 


ARTA.  15 

with  any  others,  and  as  these  nations  are  discovered  in 
mountainous  districts,  such  as  the  Iberians  of  Spain,  the 
Libyans  of  the  Atlas,  and  many  of  the  tribes  of  the  Cau- 
casus, we  may  indulge  in  the  probability  that  they  repre- 
sent the  remnants  of  the  aborigines  who  were  conquered 
by  the  Aryan  or  Indo-European  host,  and  fled  before  them. 
In  this  westward  march  of  the  "noble  family"  of  Arya 
two  great  roads  were  open,  one  through  Chorazan  or 
Modern  Russia,  and  thence  to  the  shores  of  the  Black 
Sea  and  Thrace ;  another  from  Armenia  across  the  Cau- 
casus to  the  Danube,  or  by  way  of  Asia  Minor  to  south- 
em  Thrace  and  Greece  ;  and  upon  these  tracks  our  ances- 
tors, as  well  as  those  of  most  of  the  races  of  Europe,  must 
have  made  their  westward  march,  or,  as  Miiller  so  graph- 
ically describes  it,  the  first  ancestors  of  the  Indians, 
the  Persians,  the  Greeks,  the  Romans,  the  Slaves,  the 
Celts,  and  the  Germans  were  living  together  within  the 
same  inciosure,  nay,  under  the  same  roof,  and  two  kinds 
of  British  subjects,  the  Indian  Sepoy  and  the  English  sol- 
dier, now  find  that  they  are  speaking  a  common  language. 

Here,  then,  we  have  some  of  the  first  known  stock  of 
man  spread  over  the  land  called  Turkey,  wedded  to  the 
aborigines,  whoever  they  might  be,  and  thus  they  passed 
their  centuries,  and  grew  in  history  to  Thracians,  which 
split  asunder  into  tribes,  which  in  their  turn  grew  to 
nations,  as  DacipoUs,  Getse,  Odrysians,  Pierians,  etc. 

So  much  for  the  Aryan  strand  of  the  human  rope  ;  but 
there  is  another  which  has  a  firmer  tie  upon  this  land  of 
Turkey.  To  trace  it  we  must  again  travel  eastward,  far 
away  to  the  great  watershed  of  Asia,  that  large  elevated 
plateau  which  begets  the  rivers  which  find  their  way 
through  fertile  valleys,  north,  south,  east,  and  west  unto 
the  sea.  There  is  the  land  of  Tura,  of  swift  horses,  rich 
pasturage,  and  bracing  air,  and  it  was  here  the  Turk  and 
Bulgarian  may  say  that  "our  fathers  fed  their  flocks." 
No  thought  or  care  for  tillage  racked  their  minds ;  but 
here  to-day  and  there  to-morrow  they  moved  their  flocks 
and  herds,  their  tents  and  families,  under  a  free  nomadic 


16  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

life.  Those  who  have  a  knowledge  of  the  East  may  see 
the  shadow  of  this  nomad  life  in  the  habits  of  shepherd 
tribes  in  the  present  day.  The  Youruks  in  Asia  Minor 
move  with  the  seasons  ;  on  the  hills  in  summer,  dwelling 
in  temporary  villages  many  thousand  feet  above  the  sea, 
surrounded  by  their  wives  and  children,  their  flocks  and 
herds,  they  make  their  temporary  home. 

As  autumn  approaches  all  their  household  goods  are 
packed  on  horses,  and,  driving  their  flocks  before  them, 
they  slowly  descend  to  pitch  their  tents  on  plains  three 
hundred  miles  or  more  away. 

In  bygone  ages  a  family  of  Tura  was  the  nucleus  of  a 
tribe.  The  flocks  increased  in  parity  with  children.  The 
flocks,  in  charge  of  shepherd  sons,  split  up  in  search  of 
pasture,  and  these  again  multiplied  the  fractions  of  the 
unit  which  first  was  called  a  tribe,  and  then  a  nation,  as  it 
spread  upon  the  pasture  area  until  it  touched  new  climes, 
which  forced  a  change  of  habit  and  of  aspect  in  both 
flocks  and  men.  Thus,  as  time  rolled  on,  the  great  Tura- 
nian root  threw  out  five  offshoots,  and  called  them 
Ugrian,  Turk,  Mongolian,  Tungusian,  and  Bhotiya  races. 
The  first  two  of  these  have,  in  their  nomadic  nature, 
pushed  their  way  to  Turkey,  but  by  very  different  routes 
and  climates  ;  and  they  have  met  so  many  foreign  damsels 
by  the  way,  that  marriage  and  the  elements  have  so 
changed  their  aspect  and  their  customs  that,  now  they  are 
face  to  face  on  Turkish  soil  as  Bulgarians  and  Osmanlis, 
their  ancient  ancestor  of  Tura  would  fail  to  recognize  his 
sons.  But  there  they  are,  and  they  have  spread  over  the 
Aryan  or  Indo-European  layer,  composed  of  Thracians, 
Slaves,  and  Celts,  on  Turkish  land,  and  mingled  with  it  by 
marriage.  This  land  of  Tura  was  the  home  of  swift 
horses  ;  and  it  is  probable  that  it  is  from  there  that  we 
must  hail  the  blood  of  those  animals  which  we  in  England 
prize  so  much.  In  company  with  the  human  race  they 
made  their  journey,  and  even  now  we  can  trace  their  path 
in  the  direction  of  their  home  ;  and  the  horses  of  the  Turco- 
mans rival  in  bone  and  stature  those  of  their  probable 


TURA.  17 

cousins  in  England,  and  would  beat  tliem  out  of  tlie  field 
in  endurance.  The  climate  and  pasture  of  Arabia  prob- 
ably reduced  them  to  the  compact  and  hardy  horses 
which  the  Arabs  love  and  cherish. 

The  nomadic  life  of  the  Turanian  family  of  men  was 
better  calculated  to  leave  an  impress  of  its  races  upon  the 
present  generation  than  was  that  of  the  Aryan  stock,  inas- 
much as  the  latter  moved  as  conquering  armies,  and  took 
to  their  new  homes  the  women  of  the  race  they  conquered, 
while  the  former  were  often  followed  in  their  migrations 
by  the  women  and  children  of  their  tribe,  and  thus  the 
purity  of  their  race  was  better  maintained.  This  is  very 
marked  in  the  case  of  the  Bulgarians,  who  show  such  dis- 
tinctive physical  characteristics  that  they  are  probably 
similar  in  appearance  now  to  their  ancestors,  who  entered 
the  country  a  thousand  years  ago.  They  have  married, 
no  doubt  largely,  into  the  Slavonic  layer,  which  they 
found  spread  over  Turkey  in  Europe ;  but  the  introduc- 
tion of  their  own  women,  who  followed  the  wake  of  their 
conquering  armies,  must  have  helped  much  toward  their 
distinctive  character. 

These  remarkable  people  have  been  brought  so  promi- 
nently before  the  public  by  the  sad  massacres  of  last  year 
(1876),  that  a  brief  description  of  their  entry  into,  and 
residence  in,  Turkey  may  not  be  uninteresting.  I  was  liv- 
ing amongst  them  for  a  considerable  time,  and  therefore 
had  an  opportunity  of  observing — and  I  may  say,  admir- 
ing— their  character. 
2 


CHAPTER  11. 

THE  BULGAEIANS. 

The  Bulgarians — Their  Finnish  Origin — First  Emigration  into  Thrace — 
Marked  difference  between  the  Inhabitants  North  and  South  of  the 
Balkan  —  Introduction  of  Christianity — Foundation  of  the  Bulgarian 
National  Church — Reign  of  King  Simeon — War  between  Greeks  and 
Bulgarians — Horrible  Cruelties  practised  on  either  side — Strong  National 
feeling  existing  among  the  latter — Persecution  of  the  Bulgarian  by  the 
Greek  Church — National  Schools — District  of  Phillipopolis — Compul- 
sory School-rate — Protestant  Mission  School  at  Samakov  —American  Col- 
lege on  the  Bosphorus — Sect  of  the  Paulicians — Bulgarian  Newspapers 
— ^Monastery  of  Rilo — Revival  of  the  Bulgarian  National  Church — Spirit- 
ual Circular  from  the  Synod — Ecclesiastical  disputes  between  Greeks 
and  Bulgarians — Fomented  by  Russia — Cretan  Insurrection — Lord  Strang- 
ford— So-called  Rebellion  of  1867-68— Manufacture  of  that  of  1876— 
Administration  of  Justice. 

TOU  tell  me,  says  a  traveler,  that  the  Bulgarians  are 
Finns  from  the  Ugrian  stock,  and  therefore  first 
cousins  to  the  Magyars  of  Hungary  ;  but  how,  then,  does 
it  come  about  that  their  language  is  a  form  of  Slavonic, 
and  that  they  are  claimed  as  brothers  by  the  Panslavic 
societies  ? 

The  answer  is  that,  in  their  south-eastward  march  from 
Asia,  they  came  upon  the  track  of  the  Slavonians  of  the 
Indo-European  family,  and  that  they  passed  centuries 
amongst  them.  That  these  Finns  made  their  way  to  the 
river  Volga,  and  were  settled  about  a  tovm  called  Bolgaris, 
from  which  they  took  their  name.  In  those  days  nations 
moved  about  like  great  flights  of  birds,  and  were  some- 
times scared  away  by  flights  with  sharper  talons  than 
themselves.  This  was  the  case  with  the  Bulgarians,  who, 
after  a  long  sojourn  between  the  Volga  and  Tanais,  were 
scared  away  by  the  Avars,  a  branch  of  the  Turkish  nation 

18 


THE  B  TIL  GARIANS.  10 

wlio  liad  come  by  a  different  route  from  the  common  land 
of  Tnra.  So  these  crest-fallen  Finns  packed  up  bag  and 
baggage,  and  started  off  in  the  year  a.d.  559  for  the  Dan- 
ube, which,  finding  hard  frozen,  they  crossed  with  ease 
under  the  direction  of  their  great  chief,  Zabergan,  until 
they  stood  upon  the  soil  of  Thrace.  But  ages  before  this 
the  Indo-Europeans,  probably  Slavonians,  had  occupied 
the  same  ground,  and  now  called  their  tribes  under  the 
generic  term  of  Thracians.  But  not  only  so.  The  modem 
Slavonians,  as  they  may  be  called,  had  but  just  preceded 
the  Bulgarians  in  then-  attack  upon  these  Thracian  cous- 
ins, and  occupied  their  land  and  homes.  Here,  then,  the 
Bulgarian  Finns  found  themselves  on  thorough  Slavonian 
ground,  and  among  a  thorough  Slavonian  people.  Prior 
to  this  they  had  passed  over  Slavonian  land,  and  they  had 
also  lived  cheek  by  jowl  with  Turks,  as  Avars  and  Huns. 
They  spread  in  a.d.  559  over  Thrace,  the  dominion  of  the 
Byzantine  Empu^e,  to  the  very  walls  of  Constantinople, 
and  covered  the  land  from  the  Danube  to  the  iEgean  Sea, 
and  from  Albania  to  the  Black  Sea,  and  there  they  liave 
remained  until  the  present  date.  They  now  form  the  bulk 
of  the  population  of  Turkey  in  Europe,  if  we  exclude 
Albania  and  the  tributaries,  and  we  might  with  as  much 
reason  call  Northumberland  England,  as  the  district  north 
of  the  Balkan  Bulgaria.  That  district  is,  in  point  of  fact, 
less  Bulgarian  than  the  country  south  of  the  Balkan, 
where  the  massacres  took  place,  for  that  great  natural 
mountain  barrier  has  partially  obstructed  communication, 
and  thus  tended  to  keep  up  the  purity  of  the  race  to  the 
south,  whilst  the  easy  communication  with  the  world  by 
means  of  the  river  Danube  in  the  north  has  introduced 
foreign  blood. 

This  difference  between  the  Bulgarian  people  is  very 
marked :  south  of  the  Balkan,  the  women  are  exceedingly 
ugly  and  virtuous  ;  while  north  of  that  range  they  are  de- 
cidedly pretty,  and  rumor  asserts  that  they  are  not  eqiial 
to  their  southern  cousins  in  point  of  morality.  I  have 
given  the  Finnish  origin  of  the  Bulgarians  on  two  of  the 


20  TURKEY  IN  EVBOPE. 

best  antliorities,  namely,  Prichard  and  Miiller,  and  from 
what  I  liave  seen  of  the  people,  they  certainly  bear  out 
all  that  those  learned  men  have  said  of  them.  Although 
their  hair  is  dark,  and  sometimes  black,  as  adults,  it  is 
generally  fair  as  children.  The  women  south  of  the  Bal- 
kan might  pass  in  physical  aspect  as  Finns  ;  and  I  have  a 
Bulgarian  in  my  own  employ  that  might  be  taken  as  the 
original  of  the  illustration  of  a  male  Finn  in  Prichard' s 
work  on  the  natural  history  of  man.  But  what  about 
their  Slavonic  language  ?  Here,  again,  philologists  assert 
that  a  Finnish  as  well  as  a  Turkish  element  may  be  de- 
tected. The  effect  is  probably  the  result  of  Bulgarian 
Finns  marrying  Slavonian  women,  and  their  children 
adopted  principally  the  "mother  tongue,"  and  by  rub- 
bing against  the  Avars  and  other  Turkish  tribes  in  Scythia, 
some  portions  of  that  language  agglutinated  to  them  by 
contact. 

A  similar  instance  of  the  transition  of  language  is  visi- 
ble in  the  same  race  during  the  present  day.  The  Bulga- 
rians in  Macedonia  border  and  touch  the  Greek  popula- 
tion :  accordingly,  we  find  them  speaking  Greek  as  their 
social,  and  Bulgarian  as  their  domestic,  language  ;  but  the 
latter  is  in  that  quarter  fast  disappearing.  I  asked  some 
]\Iacedonian  Bulgarian  peasants  their  nationality,  and  they 
immediately  replied,  "Roum,"  the  generic  name  given  to 
the  Greek  inhabitants  of  Asia  Minor.  They  persisted  that 
they  were  Greeks.  "  Why,  then,"  I  asked,  "  do  you  talk 
Bulgarian  in  your  domestic  life ? "  "Because  our  fathers 
did  it,"  was  the  answer ;  and  they  added,  "We  have  suf- 
fered trouble  enough  from  being  called  Bulgarians,  when 
we  are  Greeks."  By  this  remark  they  meant  that,  hav- 
ing been  under  the  domination  of  the  Greek  Church,  they 
were  persecuted  if  they  attempted  to  assert  their  Bul- 
garian nationality,  which  is  opposed  to  Pan-Hellenic 
schemes. 

After  their  occupation  of  Thrace  and  Macedonia  in  the 
sixth  century,  the  Bulgarians  gradually  rose  in  power, 
and  established  the  capital  of  their  kingdom  at  the  beau- 


TEE  BULGARIANS.  21 

tiful  town  of  Lychnidus,  tlie  modern  Oclirida,  in  the  Al- 
banian mountains.  But  they  were  but  an  ^Hmperium  in 
imjperioP 

The  great  Byzantine  Empire,  with  its  capital  at  Con- 
stantinople, checked  and  overshadowed  them.  It  was  a 
fortress  which,  from  its  geographical  position,  formed  the 
key  to  the  chief  power  in  the  country. 

The  Bulgarians  lived  by  the  power  of  the  sword  and  the 
bow ;  their  newly-adopted  country  was  a  cockpit,  whereon 
Greek  fought  Greek.  They  were  now  in  alliance,  now  at 
war,  with  some  foreign  intruder ;  the  whole  country  was 
like  a  stormy  sea,  upon  which  nations  embarked  only  to 
meet  with  shipwi-eck.  Hungarians,  Romans,  Venetians, 
Genoese,  Tartars,  Normans,  Germans,  and  Turks,  all  ap- 
peared to  be  attracted  to  the  country  as  a  common  battle- 
field ;  and  amidst  the  contending  parties  the  Bulgarians, 
although  they  clung  to  the  soil  as  a  rural  population, 
eventually  saw  their  government  and  waning  power 
packed  away  north  of  the  Balkan,  and  the  capital  of  their 
kingdom  was  moved  from  Ochrida,  in  Albania,  to  Tknova, 
near  the  Danube.  Amidst  these  centuries  of  warfare  they 
sometimes  arrived  at  the  very  gates  of  Constantinople, 
but  they  never  succeeded  in  the  capture  of  that  much- 
coveted  city.  In  the  present  day,  when  we  look  at  the 
mild  and  i^eaceful  Bulgarian,  who  shudders  at  the  very 
thought  of  war,  we  can  hardly  realize  that  they  are  the 
fierce  race  which  are  described  in  history  as  so  terrible  in 
battle.  This  change  of  nature  has  been  brought  about 
by  the  loss  of  their  leaders,  who  were  represented  by  their 
ancient  aristocracy  of  princes  and  nobles  who  became 
Mohammedans,  and  by  the  taming  effect  of  long  subjec- 
tion to  a  despotic  foreign  government. 

Out  of  these  thunder-clouds  of  war  and  bloodshed  there 
emerged  a  bright  ray  of  sunshine  during  the  ninth  cen- 
tury, when  Christianity  found  its  way  to  the  pagan  hearts 
of  the  Bulgarians.  The  good  seed  sown  by  St.  Paul  dur- 
ing his  visit  to  Thessalonica  had  taken  root,  and  brought 
forth  an  hundred-fold;  and  there  in  the  ninth  century 


23  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

there  dwelt  a  Christian  monk,  by  name  Methodius,  who 
had  studied  at  the  convent  of  St.  Basilius  Cyrillus  at  Con- 
stantinople. He  was  a  man  of  genius  as  well  as  a  holy 
man,  and  he  visited  Rome  to  learn  the  art  of  painting,  in 
order  to  make  it  a  means  of  impressing  the  minds  of  his 
fellows  with  holy  subjects,  and  he  made  such  progress  in 
the  art  that  he  rose  to  fame.  It  so  haj)pened  that  at  this 
time  the  Bulgarian  king,  Bogaris,  had  acquired  a  taste  for 
paintings,  and  had  filled  his  galleries  with  pictures  of  ter- 
rible deeds  of  battle  which  were  in  keeping  with  the  age. 
Hearing  of  the  fame  of  young  Methodius,  he  summoned 
him  to  his  royal  court  at  Tirnova,  and  taking  him  round 
his  gallery  of  art,  he  asked  the  Christian  monk  if  he  could 
paint  anything  more  terrible  than  he  saw  there.  Metho- 
dius replied  in  the  affirmative,  and  at  once  received  an 
order  to  commence  his  picture. 

At  last  the  work  of  art  was  finished,  and  the  Christian 
monk  carried  it  into  the  presence  of  the  heathen  king. 

"Show  me,"  said  Bogaris,  " with  what  event  you  have 
rivaled  all  my  terrible  deeds  of  men."  "  Behold,  O  king," 
said  Methodius,  "the  most  terrible  event  that  man  can 
contemplate,"  and  he  uncovered  the  picture,  represent- 
ing the  "Last  Judgment."  The  picture,  together  with  the 
arguments  of  the  monk,  so  worked  upon  the  imagina- 
tion of  the  king  that  he  requested  to  be  baptized  ;  and 
soon  afterwards,  by  the  constant  exertions  of  Methodius 
and  his  brother  Cyrillus,  the  whole  of  the  Bulgarian  sub- 
jects were,  in  the  year  a.d.  853,  converted  to  Christianity. 

These  two  Christian  brothers  were  afterwards  very  ac- 
tive in  converting  the  Slavonians,  and  Methodius  was 
made  Archbishop  of  Pannonia.  Assisted  by  Cyrillus,  he 
invented  the  Slavonian  alphabet,  which  received  the  name 
of  the  "Cyrillic,"  and  they  translated  the  whole  of  the 
Bible  into  the  Slavonian  language. 

It  is  here  that  the  history  commences  of  the  Bulgarian 
National  Church,  which  was  destined  some  centuries  later 
to  bring  upon  the  nation  a  persecution  from  its  Greek 
rival,  which  exceeded  in  animosity  anything  that  was  ex- 


TEE  BULGARIANS.  23 

perienced  from  Mohammedan  rule.  Altliougli  the  Bul- 
garian Church  admitted  the  doctrine,  disciiDline,  and 
usages  of  the  Greek  Church,  it  was  strictly  independent, 
and  was  under  primates  of  its  own  ;  but  for  political  pur- 
poses it  sometimes  voluntarily  acknowledged  the  suprem- 
acy of  Rome,  and  sometimes  that  of  the  Greek  head  at 
Constantinople.  This  ecclesiastical  freedom  it  held  until 
shortly  after  the  overthrow  of  the  Bulgarian  kingdom  and 
its  conquest  by  the  Turks. 

With  the  introduction  of  Christianity  in  the  ninth  cen- 
tury new  life  was  given  to  the  Bulgarian  kingdom.  Edu- 
cation flourished,  and  the  schools  of  Constantinople  were 
filled  with  Bulgarian  nobles. 

Amongst  them  was  a  young  monk  of  royal  descent, 
who,  notwithstanding  his  religious  education,  possessed 
the  warlike  ambition  of  his  warrior  race,  which  impelled 
him  to  relinquish  the  cowl  and  acce^Dt  the  throne,  and  in 
A.D.  888,  the  young  Simeon  became  a  King  of  Bulgaiia. 
He  immediately  commenced  to  establish  his  power  by  at- 
tacks upon  the  Greeks,  provoked  by  the  ill-treatment  of 
Bulgarian  merchants  at  Thessalonica  by  Stylianus,  father- 
in-law  to  the  reigning  emperor,  Leo  VI.  Simeon  was  uni- 
formly successful  against  the  Greeks.  He  ravaged  the 
whole  of  Macedonia,  and  then  advanced  to  the  siege  of 
Constantinople,  and  imposed  conditions  of  peace  on  the 
alarmed  emxDeror.  Simeon  died,  after  a  prosperous  reign 
of  forty  years,  during  which  period  the  Bulgarians  as- 
pired to  rank  amongst  the  leading  nations  in  Europe. 

Both  art  and  science  flourished  throughout  the  country, 
and  the  Christian  religion  was  fii'mly  established.  Dur- 
ing this  reign  a  remarkable  system  of  telegraphy  was  in- 
vented by  Leo,  ArchbishoxD  of  Salonica,  who  was  after- 
wards head  of  the  mathematical  school  of  Magnaura,  in 
Constantinople  ;  and  it  was  extended  from  the  borders  of 
Syria  to  that  city.  A  marked  dial  of  a  clock  was  kept  in 
the  castle  of  Lulus,  near  Tarsus,  and  a  corresponding  one 
at  Constantinople.  Fires,  kindled  at  certain  hours  of  the 
day,  conveyed  intelligence  of  hostile  incursions,  battles. 


24  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

conflagrations,  and  other  incidents  of  war,  the  honr  of 
kindling  indicating  the  nature  of  the  incident,  according 
to  an  arranged  plan  marked  on  a  dial-plate  of  the  clocks. 
What  would  Archbishop  Leo  have  said  to  a  submarine 
telegraph  to  America ! 

The  ascendency  of  King  Simeon  was  so  great  that  he 
obtained  the  title  of  BasUeus,  or  Emperor. 

From  this  period  to  the  Turkish  conquest,  we  find  Bul- 
garia frequently  at  war  with  the  many  rival  Greek  em- 
perors ;  and  the  horrible  cruelties  practiced  by  both  sides 
mark  the  rancorous  hate  which  existed  between  the  foes. 

On  one  occasion,  the  Bulgarian  king,  Samuel,  was 
defeated  at  the  battle  of  Tetunium  by  the  Emperor  Basil 
II.,  who  captured  fifteen  thousand  prisoners.  With  bar- 
barous cruelty  he  had  all  their  eyes  put  out,  with  the 
exception  of  one  out  of  every  hundred  men,  who  were 
spared  in  order  to  conduct  the  blind  centuries  back  to 
their  native  country.  It  is  said  that  when  King  Samuel 
beheld  his  brave  and  mutilated  troops,  he  fell  senseless, 
and  died  two  days  afterwards. 

A  remarkable  feature  in  the  history  of  the  Bulgarians 
is  the  strong  current  of  national  feeling  which  existed, 
and  still  exists,  amongst  the  people.  We  do  not  hear  of 
insurrections  amongst  the  Bulgarian  people  against  their 
own  government ;  but,  on  the  contrary,  they  always  ap- 
pear as  a  united  people,  struggling  for  independence. 

This  power  of  cohesion  and  strong  national  feeling  is 
very  apparent  to  any  traveler  who  may  go  amongst  them 
in  the  present  day.  They  all  seem  most  anxious  and 
willing  to  sink  their  individuality  for  the  common  welfare 
of  the  nation ;  and  it  is  a  feeling  which,  under  proper 
guidance,  should  have  great  results. 

At  the  battle  of  Mcopolis,  a.d.  1396,  when  the  flower  of 
the  French  and  Hungarian  chivalry  were  defeated  by  the 
Turks,  under  Bayezid,  all  hope  of  freedom  for  the  Bul- 
garians passed  away ;  and  they  were  henceforth  to  be- 
come Turkish  subjects,  and  to  furnish  a  quota  of  their 
youths  to  be  educated  as  their  Mussulman  oppressors,  un- 


THE  BULGARIANS.  25 

der  the  name  of  Janizaries.  The  Ottoman  race  was  at  this 
time  rising  to  the  pinnacle  of  its  power  ;  and  the  capture 
of  Constantinople,  in  a.d.  1453,  riveted  the  Turks  in  the 
position  of  a  European  power,  although  not  of  the  Euro- 
pean family. 

The  Bulgarians  as  Ottoman  subjects  sank  into  oblivion 
under  the  shadow  of  Ottoman  rule,  and  they  had  now 
to  work  under  a  despotic  power  side  by  side  with  their 
fonner  enemies,  the  Greeks,  but  the  latter  people  by  no 
means  abandoned  the  fight ;  they  threw  away  the  sword, 
it  is  true,  but  they  took  up  the  less  manly  weapon  of  in- 
trigue, and  handled  it  with  cruel  skill.  From  that  day  to 
this  they  have  endeavored  to  discredit  their  rival  fellow- 
subjects,  the  Bulgarians,  in  the  eyes  of  their  common 
government,  and,  with  the  help  of  a  period  of  ecclesiasti- 
cal tyranny,  they  have  added  greatly  to  the  weight  of 
the  yoke  that  has  pressed  on  the  necks  of  the  unfortu- 
nate Bulgarians. 

But  it  may  be  asked,  How  is  it  that  this  people,  greatly 
superior  to  the  Greeks  in  point  of  numbers,  has  neverthe- 
less been  completely  outstripped  by  their  rivals  in  influ- 
ence mth  their  common  despotic  rulers  % 

The  answer  lies  in  the  fact  that  after  the  conquest  of 
the  country  by  the  Turks,  the  great  body  of  Bulgarian 
nobles  and  men  of  influence  were  perverted  to  Moham- 
medanism. They  were  not  probably  so  much  under  the 
influence  of  the  priesthood  as  the  peasantry,  and  therefore 
exchanged  persecution  as  Christians  for  the  benefit  of 
Mohammedan  subjects.  The  Greek  upper  classes,  on  the 
contrary,  clung  to  their  hierarchy,  which,  it  must  be  re- 
membered, was  firmly  rooted  in  the  capital,  and  they 
looked  upon  it  as  a  center  of  union,  by  which  they  might 
eventually  regain  their  empire.  The  Ottomans  adopted 
the  principle  of  religious  toleration,  and  made  use  of 
the  hierarchies  as  channels  for  governing  their  Christian 
subjects,  hence  it  may  be  seen  how  infinitely  superior 
must  have  been  the  influence  of  the  Greeks  over  that  of 
the  Bulgarians.     By  this  religious  toleration  the  Otto- 


26  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

mans  greatly  weakened  tlieir  power ;  had  they  followed 
the  example  of  Mahomet,  and  inoculated  the  inhabitants 
of  the  countries  they  conquered  with  Islamism  by  the 
point  of  the  sword,  they  would  have  brought  them,  at 
the  end  of  two  generations,  all  under  their  banner  as  firm 
believers. 

Fortunately  for  Christendom  this  was  not  done,  or  the 
power  of  the  Turk  might  have  spread  over  all  Europe, 
and  the  Christian  religion  would  have  been  a  blessing  of 
the  past. 

From  the  time  of  the  conquest  the  history  of  the  Bul- 
garians blends  with  that  of  the  history  of  Turkey  in  Eu- 
rope ;  they  formed  the  bulk  of  the  population  of  the 
country,  and  theu'  numerical  strength  ruffled  the  equa- 
nimity of  the  Porte,  and  caused  them  to  be  regarded  with 
a  jealous  eye  and  to  be  ruled  with  an  iron  hand. 

The  Ottoman-Greek  j)owers,  as  centered  in  the  Phanar, 
soon  realized  the  importance  of  the  influence,  both  eccle- 
siastical and  civil,  which  became  vested  in  the  federation 
of  theocracies  under  the  scepter  of  the  Sultan,  and  they 
artfully  represented  to  the  Porte  that,  since  the  Bul- 
garians were  Greek  in  faith,  they  should  be  placed  under 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  Greek  Patriarch. 

For  a  long  time  the  Porte  refused  to  listen  to  the  repre- 
sentations of  the  Phanar  politicians,  who  eventually  be- 
took themselves  to  fresh  maneuvers  to  accomj)lish  their 
object.  It  was  insinuated  that  a  rebellious  spirit  existed 
amongst  the  Bulgarians,  and  that  the  State  was  in  danger, 
and  every  kind  of  intrigue  was  set  on  foot  to  give  color 
to  the  suggestion.  This  was  touching  the  Porte  on  its 
weak  point,  and  a  firmer  grip  upon  Bulgarian  liberty 
was  the  result. 

A  long  period  of  subjection,  rural  occupation,  and  the 
absence  of  an  aristocracy,  had  obliterated  the  warlike 
spmt  of  the  Bulgarian  people,  and  nothing  was  farther 
from  their  thoughts,  wishes,  or  power  than  rebellion,  so 
that  the  Phanar  insinuation  was  a  cruel  irony. 

The  Greeks,  however,  were  in  their  element  when  fenc- 


THE  BULGARIANS.  27 

ing  with  their  favorite  weapon,  intrigue  ;  and  in  the  year 
1767  they  gave  the  final  thrust,  and  the  Bulgarian  Church 
was  placed  under  the  immediate  spiritual  jurisdiction  of 
the  See  of  Constantinople. 

That  success  was  obtained  through  venality  may  be  sur- 
mised from  the  following  translation  of  the  formal  act  of 
abdication  made  by  Orsenius,  the  last  Bulgarian  primate 
and  Patriarch  of  Ochrida,  which  was  the  seat  of  the 
Bulgarian  ecclesiastical  government,  as  it  had  once  been 
the  seat  of  their  kingdom  : 

"  With  this  present  voluntary  resignation  I,  subjoined, 
make  known  that  because  it  is  impossible  for  me  to  fulfill 
the  duties  and  obligations  of  the  patriarchate  of  Ochrida, 
inasmuch  as  we  have  been  the  means  of  bringing  into  con- 
tempt the  name  of  patriarch,  thereby  bringing  u]3on  them 
(Christians)  persecutions  and  heavy  losses,  and  similar 
troubles  upon  the  Christian  subjects  ;  and  since  in  no  way 
but  by  the  abolition  of  the  patriarchate  can  the  flock  of 
Christ  be  delivered  from  their  hands,  therefore  I  give  in  my 
resignation  of,  and  free  dismission  from  the  seat  of  Och- 
rida ;  retaining,  however,  my  former  Eparchia  of  Pelagonia 
(Monastir),  which  I  retain  for  myself  during  life,  as  a 
means  of  living,  and  for  my  expenses."  Signed,  Orsenius 
Dolis.     January,  1767. 

There  is  an  evident  attempt  in  this  vague  document  to 
make  a  virtue  of  necessity,  an  unctuous  resignation  of 
power  to  save  his  flock  from  persecution,  coupled  with  the 
paramount  necessity  of  retaining  his  rich  Eparchia  of  Pel- 
agonia for  his  own  lifetime,  and  the  concluding  words, 
"  for  my  expenses,"  savors  much  of  a  quidpi'o  quo. 

No  mention  is  made  of  the  rest  of  his  clergy  ;  but  it  is 
merely  an  individual  resignation,  and  as  such  it  was  ac- 
cepted by  the  Bulgarian  people  and  the  great  body  of  the 
clergy  who  refused  stoutly  to  recognize  the  Act  of  Abdi- 
cation, and  declared  themselves  strangers  to  the  bargain. 
It  soon,  however,  became  apparent  that  the  Porte  had  come 
to  terms  with  the  Phanar,  and  a  stern  pressure  turned 
Bulgarian  refusal  into  servile  protest ;  their  bishops  and 


28  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

clergy  were  dismissed,  their  sees  and  parishes  were  occu- 
pied by  Greeks  ;  their  monasteries  and  schools  were  seized, 
and  the  revenues  appropriated  by  the  Greek  communities  ; 
but  the  greatest  blow  of  all  was  struck  in  the  elimination 
of  the  Bulgarian  language  and  literature  from  all  the  edu- 
cational establishments. 

The  revolutionary  cruelty  of  this  sweeping  measure 
may  be  realized  when  it  is  remembered  that  in  Oriental 
churches  the  choice  of  the  patriarchs  and  their  councils 
usually  lies  with  the  body  of  the  people. 

It  cut  the  Bulgarians  to  the  very  quick,  in  consequence 
of  their  very  marked  and  distinctive  national  character, 
and  it  is  most  remarkable,  in  studying  the  action  of  this 
interesting  people,  to  observe  how,  under  this  crushing 
blow,  they  persistently  and  patiently  retained  their  per- 
sonality, and  after  the  lapse  of  a  century  regained  without 
rebellion  that  which  they  had  lost,  and  which  was  so  dear 
to  them. 

The  dissemination  of  the  Greek  clergy  amongst  all  their 
schools  and  churches,  and  the  transmission  through  them 
of  much  of  the  civil  as  well  as  ecclesiastical  power, 
would,  it  might  be  thought,  have  given  them  complete 
ascendency  over  the  rural  population ;  but  the  reverse  was 
the  case,  and  it  shows  a  remarkable  cohesion  in  the  Bul- 
garian people,  a  cohesion  which  may  be  traced  from  their 
earliest  history,  and  which  is  probably  destined  to  raise 
them  to  the  front  rank  of  nations. 

But  the  Greek  persecution  of  this  people  is  not  singu- 
lar ;  a  still  more  subtle  poison  has  been  instilled  into  the 
minds  of  their  Mohammedan  rulers  from  the  side  of  Rus- 
sia, who,  while  holding  out  the  right  hand  of  friendship, 
concealed  a  poisoned  dagger  in  the  left.  Hear  the  words 
of  a  Bulgarian  himself  on  these  questions,  written  in 
1868: 

"As  for  the  Greeks,  their  first  encounter  with  the  Bul- 
garians was  sword  in  hand,  and  they  had  the  worst  of  it. 
Later  on  they  made  use  of  Turkish  rule  to  take  their  re- 
venge, fastening  on  to  us  under  it  as  leeches  of  the  Phanar. 


THE  BULGARIANS.  29 

Up  to  this  day  they  obstinately  deny  ns  our  ecclesiastical 
rights,  while  we  on  our  side  never  lose  an  occasion  of  tes- 
tifying estrangement  from  everything  which  leads  up  to 
or  bears  xqyon  the  great  Hellenic  question.  It  is  very  evi- 
dent that  similarity  in  religious  forms  can  have  no  power 
to  combine  two  such  antipathic  spirits  as  ours  and  the 
Greek — I  use  the  word  forms,  because  at  bottom  the  Bul- 
garian religion  is  not  at  all  that  of  the  Greek.  With  him 
religion  is  more  an  affair  of  politics  than  anything  else ; 
it  is,  in  fact,  his  emblem  of  nationality.  With  the  Bulga- 
rian, as  with  all  the  tme  Slavs,  religion  is  a  profound  and 
self -nurturing  sentiment,  abiding  in  the  heart  unmoved  by 
the  fluctuations  of  worldly  interests.  Nor  do  we  resemble 
Russia  any  more  than  do  other  Slav  communities  ;  we  love 
individual  liberty,  and  we  are  strongly  imbued  with  a 
sense  of  rights  of  property,  so  that  Russian  centralization 
and  communistic  ideas  are  repugnant  to  us.  Our  language 
is  as  different  from  Russian  as  French  from  Italian,  that 
is  to  say,  certainly  not  enough  to  merge  into  Russian  by 
natural  fusion.  Historically  Russia  has  never  taken  a  step 
to  attach  us  to  her.  As  her  influence  arose  in  the  East, 
she  came  to  consider  us  as  an  inferior  sort  of  Slavonic  race, 
one  wholly  passive,  and  doomed  to  pass  under  Russian 
rule  by  the  mere  force  of  circumstances.  I^ot  a  word  of 
us  in  her  treaties  with  the  Porte,  for  she  found  it  best  that 
the  Greeks  should  wield  our  resources,  and  turn  our 
strength  to  account  in  order  to  undermine  the  Turkish 
empire.  .  .  .  Our  passive  attitude  in  presence  of  the 
bands  lately  sent  by  Russia  to  stir  us  up  in  revolt,  and 
our  emphatic  disclaimer  of  fellow-feeling  with  the  Cretan 
insurgents,  are  striking  proofs  of  our  want  of  sympathy 
with  Russian  tendencies,  and  of  the  political  independence 
of  our  own  conduct.'"^ 

I  shall  presently  give  some  proofs  of  the  machinery  of 
Russian  intrigue  for  the  disruption  of  Turkey,  which,  to 
residents  in  the  country,  is  so  much  matter  of  fact  that 

*  Koprichtencki.    Select  Writings  of  Viscount  Strangford. 


30  TURKEY  m  EUROPE. 

cela  t>a  sans  dire,  but  wliich  in  some  quarters  in  England 
is  received  with  such  obstinate  skepticism. 

I  dwell  upon  the  religious  struggle  between  the  Greek 
and  Bulgarian .  Churches  because  it  underlies  the  history 
and  policy  of  both  nations  since  their  subjection  to  the 
Turks,  and  it  affords  an  insight  into  the  character  of  the 
two  peoples  which  is  instructive. 

The  corrupt  and  oppressive  conduct  of  the  Greek  epis- 
copacy, and  of  the  inferior  clergy,  so  disgusted  the  Bul- 
garian people  that  they  first  took  the  legitimate  course  of 
memorializing  the  Greek  Patriarch,  as  the  head  of  their 
dominant  Church,  against  the  abuses  to  which  they  were 
subject,  but  the  only  answer  they  received  was  maledic- 
tion and  spiritual  rebuke.  They  next  appealed  to  the 
Porte,  who  in  turn  consulted  the  Greek  Patriarch  at  Con- 
stantinople, and  the  result  was  a  tightening  of  the  bands 
of  persecution.  But  the  persistency  and  patience  of  the 
Bulgarians  could  not  be  crushed ;  and  in  1840-45  several 
wealthy  merchants  from  Philippopolis  and  other  districts, 
some  of  whom  had  been  educated  abroad,  organized  a  na- 
tional opposition  to  the  spiritual  and  civic  torture  imposed 
upon  their  people.  They  worked  with  consummate  skill 
and  judgment,  and  commenced  by  the  endeavor  to  quietly 
introduce  the  Bulgarian  language  and  literature  into  the 
local  schools  and  churches,  and  thus  revive  the  national 
tendencies  of  the  people. 

Their  difficulties  were  great,  for  there  was  an  absence 
of  Bulgarian  printing-offices  in  Turkey ;  but  they  suc- 
ceeded in  getting  what  they  required  printed  and  imported 
from  abroad.  No  sooner,  however,  were  the  books  landed 
than  it  was  like  a  bomb-shell  thrown  into  the  midst  of 
the  Greek  hierarchy,  and  the  Patriarch  instantly  hurried 
to  the  Porte  and  obtained  the  confiscation  of  all  the  Bibles 
and  books,  representing  most  artfully  that  these  works, 
being  in  the  Slavic  language,  was  proof  of  Bulgarian  sym- 
pathy for  Russia,  and  was  but  the  first  act  of  rebellion. 

But  the  work  was  done  ;  the  books  were  in  the  hands 
of  the  people,  and  before  they  could  be  hunted  up  and 


THE  BULGARIANS.  31 

destroyed  tlie  desired  effect  was  produced.  A  burst  of  in- 
dignation came  forth  from  the  people  at  tlie  withdrawal 
of  the  only  means  of  educating  their  children  in  their 
much-loved  vernacular,  and  the  organized  band  of  leaders 
stepped  boldly  forward  and  demanded  their  right  to  the 
mother  tongue. 

Subscriptions  were  raised  in  all  the  district  towns,  and 
teachers  were  imported  from  Russia  and  Austria.  The 
movement  was  denounced  by  the  Greek  Patriarch,  and 
every  device  and  intrigue  were  used  to  crush  it ;  but  the 
funds  which  had  been  raised  cleared  away  the  opposition 
of  the  Ottoman  authorities,  and  permission  was  obtained 
to  establish  schools  distinct  from  those  of  the  Greeks  in 
some  of  the  district  towns,  and  the  first  central  school 
was  triumphantly  opened  in  Philippopolis,  in  1850.  Be  it 
observed,  that  this  success  was  due  to  the  exertions  of  the 
upper  class  of  Bulgarians — a  class  which  had  been  extin- 
guished at  the  conquest  of  the  country,  but  which  was 
slowly  but  steadily  revived  by  the  industry  of  the  people. 

From  the  opening  of  the  central  school  at  Philii:)poi3olis 
dates  the  revival  of  popular  education  amongst  the  Bul- 
garians. It  struggled  with  difficulties  until  the  Crimean 
War,  but  after  that  event  it  spread  with  amazing  rapidity, 
and  exhibited  an  amount  of  potential  energy  for  national 
development  which  is  truly  wonderful. 

The  Sandjak  of  Philippopolis  was  the  central  and  con- 
trolling province  of  the  Bulgarians  in  Thrace.  It  contains 
a  population  of  664,000,  composed  of 

Bulgarian  Christians 390,000 

Mohammedans,  principally  Bulgarians 240,000 

Greeks,  Albanians,  and  "Wallachs 10,000 

Jews,  Armenians,  and  Gypsies 24,000 


6G4,000 


It  has  14  towns,  877  villages,  and  109  tchiftliks,  or  private 
farms. 


32  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

Two-thirds  of  the  villages  are  occupied  by  Bulgarians, 
and  most  of  the  farms  are  worked  by  them. 

It  is  a  part  of  this  district  which  has  been  the  scene  of 
the  unhappy  massacres  during  the  late  disturbances, 
which  were  brought  about  not  by  the  Bulgarian  people, 
but  by  Russian  intrigue. 

Prior  to  1850  reading  and  writing  were  considered  rare 
accomplishments  in  this  province,  and  there  were  hardly 
any  schools  for  teaching  the  Bulgarian  language.  Before 
the  close  of  1858  there  were  5  central,  8  preparatory,  and 
90  elementary  schools,  besides  7  girls'  schools  ;  total,  110. 

In  eight  years,  vi^;.,  in  1865,  there  were  6  central,  25  pre- 
paratory, 180  elementary,  and  18  girls'  schools  ;  total,  229. 

In  1870  there  were  one  gymnasium,  or  central  college, 
6  central,  25  preparatory,  281  elementary,  and  24  girls' 
schools ;  total,  337. 

There  were  16,500  pupils,  viz.,  13,885  boys,  and  2,615 
girls,  with  346  male  and  39  female  teachers.  The  progress 
was  still  more  rapid  until  the  date  of  the  Servian  war,  and 
the  anarchy  produced  by  the  so-caUed  Bulgarian  rebellion 
of  1876. 

When  we  consider  the  apathy  of  the  Ottoman  Govern- 
ment, and  the  active  persecution  of  the  Greek  Patriarch- 
ate, the  rapidity  of  this  educational  advance  cannot  but 
excite  our  admiration. 

The  course  of  instruction  in  these  schools  had  a  modest 
commencement,  but  increased  in  scope  with  the  advance 
in  education. 

At  first  difficulty  was  found  in  obtaining  teachers,  but 
the  difficulty  was  promptly  met  by  the  establishment  at 
Phillipopolis  of  a  special  training-school  for  teachers. 

In  the  central  schools  the  course  of  instruction  extends 
over  five  years,  and  includes  the  Bulgarian,  Turkish, 
Greek,  and  French  languages,  practical  arithmetic,  ele- 
mentary mathematics,  geography,  Bulgarian  and  Turkish 
history,  religious  and  moral  instruction,  and  Church  music. 
I  visited  the  schools  at  Eski  Zaghra,  which  contain  over 
500  boys  and  300  girls,  and  they  were  admirably  managed ; 


THE  BULGARIANS.  33 

the  buildings  were  spacious,  clean,  and  well  ventilated, 
and  the  students  cheerful  and  well  dressed,  and  very  intel- 
ligent. 

I  was  also  a  guest  for  a  few  days  of  the  schoolmaster  at 
Troyan,  a  town  north  of  the  Balkan  (which  doubtless 
derives  its  name  from  Trajan),  and  was  much  struck  -with 
his  intelligence  and  the  admirable  management  of  his 
school,  and  I  have  seen  many  others  to  which  the  same 
description  would  apply. 

In  the  gymnasium  established  at  Philippopolis  1867-68 
by  special  imperial  sanction,  besides  the  subjects  taught 
at  the  central  schools,  mental  and  moral  philosophy  are 
added,  and  students  are  sent  to  it  from  the  lower  schools 
to  complete  their  studies. 

In  the  preparatory  schools,  the  course  of  instruction 
extends  over  four  years.  They  are  divided  into  two  divi- 
sions, the  upper  and  lower. 

In  the  gMs'  schools,  reading,  writing,  and  needlework 
are  taught ;  and  children  of  the  poorer  class  enter  at  five 
or  six,  and  study  until  twelve  years  of  age,  while  those  of 
the  upper  class  remain  up  to  fourteen,  but  seldom  over 
sixteen  years  of  age. 

In  the  central  schools,  boys  remain  up  to  seventeen,  and 
sometimes  to  nineteen  years  of  age. 

At  first  the  teachers  were  selected  from  Bulgarians  edu- 
cated in  Russia ;  but  they  were  immediately  denounced  to 
the  Ottoman  authorities  by  the  Greeks,  as  spies  from  that 
country,  so  it  was  found  expedient  to  obtain  the  supply  of 
teachers  from  Bulgarians  educated  in  Turkey.  The  teach- 
ers are  liberally  paid,  their  salaries  ranging  from  £70  to 
£140  per  annum.  They  possess  much  influence  with  the 
country  people,  and  are  a  great  source  of  national 
union. 

Education  is  free  for  rich  and  poor,  who  sit  side  by  side 
in  friendly  rivalry. 

Up  to  the  year  1860  the  school  funds  were  derived  from 
voluntary  subscriptions  and  from  funds  bequeathed' by 
charitable  persons ;  but  it  was  found  that  the  administra- 
3 


34  TURKEY  m  EUROPE. 

tion  of  such  funds  was  unsatisfactory,  and  tliat  they  were 
frequently  misappropriated. 

A  very  important  change  then  took  place,  and  one 
which  foreshadowed  the  rapid  approach  of  the  revival  of 
an  independent  Bulgarian  Church.  The  Bulgarians  of 
Philippopolis,  as  usual,  led  the  van,  and  renounced  their 
allegiance  to  the  supremacy  of  the  Greek  Patriarch  at 
Constantinople ;  and  they  followed  up  this  bold  step  by 
appropriating  the  ecclesiastical  domains,  tenements,  and 
revenues  of  the  diocese,  and  immediately  employed  a  part 
of  their  funds  for  educational  purposes.  Other  districts 
in  the  province  soon  followed  the  lead,  and  each  con- 
tributed a  certain  number  of  chosen  men  to  form  a  central ' 
board  for  the  management  of  the  ecclesiastical  and  educa- 
tional interests  of  the  province. 

An  excellent  organization  was  the  immediate  result ; 
and  it  was  determined  that  a  mixed  commission  of  clerical 
and  lay  members  should  be  elected  annually  in  each  dis- 
trict, charged  with  the  immediate  direction  and  control  of 
its  affairs,  both  local  and  ecclesiastical,  and  that  each 
commission  should  act  as  a  separate  board,  independent 
of  the  other,  but  responsible  to  the  community  at  large 
for  the  supervision  and  promotion  of  public  instruction. 
As  a  matter  of  course,  all  these  important  changes  were 
not  made  without  the  passive  sanction  of  the  Porte,  and 
the  amount  of  patience  and  perseverance  which  brought 
them  about  cannot  easily  be  measured  ;  but  at  the  same 
time,  we  must  credit  the  Ottoman  Government  with  the 
progress  which  they  at  all  events  permitted  to  be  carried 
out  by  their  subjects. 

We  thus  see  that  the  Bulgarian  school  fund  is  sup- 
ported by  voluntary  contributions  and  bequests,  but  there 
is  a  peculiar  exception,  and  one  which  is  quite  novel  to 
the  practice  of  the  country.  The  gymnasium  at  PhiMp- 
popolis  derives  its  funds  from  a  direct  tax  annually  levied 
on  each  Bulgarian  "nefouz,"  male  inhabitant  of  the  kasa, 
or  district,  at  the  rate  of  fifty-two  paras  (2id.)  per  head. 
This  school-rate  is  compulsory,  and  is  assessed  by  the 


TUE  B  UL 0ARIAN8.  35 

Ottoman  authorities  under  a  special  firman,  and  by  them 
applied  to  the  maintenance  of  the  college.  The  tax  pro- 
duces about  £700  per  annum,  and  is  willingly  paid  by 
the  inhabitants.  We  here  get  a  government  tax,  the  pro- 
ceeds of  which  are  given  as  a  government  grant  to  a  non- 
Mahommedan  national  school,  an  innovation  which  was 
only  carried  in  1868  after  much  agitation  on  the  part  of 
the  Bulgarians.  The  Ottoman  authorities  frequently  at- 
tend by  invitation  the  public  examinations  and  delivery 
of  prizes  at  the  Bulgarian  schools. 

The  craving  for  education  amongst  the  people  is  very 
great ;  and  I  was  surprised  to  find  that  at  a  little  village 
near  the  Black  Sea  coast  at  which  I  was  staying,  one  of 
the  Bulgarian  rayahs,  who  had  raised  himself  to  compara- 
tive independence  by  his  own  agricultural  industry,  built 
at  his  own  expense  a  very  good  school-house,  and  pro- 
vided a  schoolmaster,  for  the  benefit  of  the  village  com- 
munity. , 

A  very  important  addition  to  the  education  of  the 
country  is  supplied  from  a  quarter  which  is  so  distant 
that  it  would  be  least  expected,  and  that  is  America. 

The  Protestant  missionaries  of  the  American  Board  of 
Foreign  Missions  established  schools  at  Eski  Zaghra  and 
Philippopolis,  and  met  with  great  success,  not,  however, 
without  much  opposition  from  the  Bulgarian  and  Greek 
ecclesiastical  party.  They  were  obliged  to  move  their 
schools  to  Samakov  in  1870,  and  they  are  placed  under 
the  Rev.  J.  F.  Clarke  as  principal.  I  had  the  pleasure  of 
being  his  guest  in  1874,  when  the  new  and  spacious  school- 
house  had  just  been  completed.  At  one  time  the  mission 
counted  500  pupils  in  its  schools,  but  the  so-called  Bul- 
garian insurrection  of  1867-68  brought  about  complica- 
tions which  necessitated  the  removal  of  the  schools  to 
Samokov,  and,  consequently,  many  of  the  pupils  were  lost. 
When  I  visited  the  school  at  the  latter  place  in  1874  there 
were  numerous  pupils,  and  Mr.  Clarke  assured  me  he  was 
making  good  progress.  I  could  not  help  being  struck  by 
the  cool  courage  and  determination  of  my  host,  who  was 


36  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

evidently  ready  to  go  anywhere  and  brave  anything  in 
pursuit  of  his  duty,  which  is  frequently  attended  with 
much  danger.  One  of  the  missionaries  lost  his  life  from 
an  attack  by  brigands,  while  traveling  in  company  with 
his  wife.  The  fanatical  hatred  of  the  rival  Christian  com- 
munities is  also  a  source  of  danger.  Mr.  Clarke  has  been 
at  his  post  during  the  late  massacres,  and  as  he  was  sur- 
rounded by  the  disturbed  districts  he  must  have  been  ex- 
posed to  considerable  risk. 

The  head-quarters  and  Bible  Society  of  this  Mission  is 
at  Constantinople.  It  numbers  many  earnest  and  ener- 
getic men  amongst  its  missionaries,  and  meets  with  a  fair 
amount  of  success,  the  converts  being  chiefly  Bulgarians. 

The  intei'preter  I  engaged  at  Eski  Zaghra  to  carry  me 
through  the  country  was  a  Bulgarian  who  had  been  edu- 
cated by  this  society,  and  who  had  been  on  a  tour  in 
America  lecturing  on  "The  Bulgarian  People."  He  was 
a  straightforward,  honest  man,  and  had  quite  the  dialect, 
manner,  and  appearance  of  an  American. 

I  must  here  allude  to  another  American  educational 
establishment  of  the  utmost  importance ;  and  since  it 
draws  the  great  bulk  of  its  students  from  the  Bulgarian 
population,  it  should  find  a  place  in  this  part  of  my  work. 
I  allude  to  "Robert  College,"  which  was  founded  in 
1863  at  the  beautiful  spot,  Bebek,  on  the  Bosphorus,  by 
the  American  philanthropist,  Mr.  Christopher  Robert, 
and  to  which  object  he  devoted  the  munificent  sum  of 
£20,000.  The  result  is,  that  large  and  striking  building 
which  attracts  the  eye  as  the  prominent  object  on  ap- 
proaching Bebek.  The  principal.  Dr.  Cyrus  Hamblin, 
was,  I  believe,  his  own  architect,  and  studied  utility 
rather  than  architectural  effect.  I  cannot  do  better  than 
quote  Dr.  Hamblin' s  own  words  as  to  the  object  and  work- 
ing of  the  college : 

"The  idea  of  the  college  was  to  furnish  a  thorough 
education  to  the  different  nationalities  and  sects  of  this 
empire. 

"Each  community  may  have  excellent  schools  of  its 


THE  BULGARIANS.  37 

own,  but  tliey  are  all  defective  in  tlieir  fundamental  idea 
and  principle.  The  different  communities  dwell  together, 
have  a  great  deal  of  business  together,  have  a  common 
government  and  common  interests,  and  should,  so  far  as 
possible,  be  unified  by  a  common  education.  It  is  the 
truest  safety  of  the  State  and  of  society.  It  is,  however,  a 
plan  beset  with  many  difficulties  in  its  execution.  Each 
nationality,  Aimenian,  Greek,  Bulgarian,  Jewish,  Turkish, 
Persian,  English,  French,  Italian,  German,  etc.,  etc.,  must 
have  its  language  studied  at  length.  In  point  of  fact, 
about  twelve  languages  are  used  at  the  college.  How 
shall  this  not  create  terrible  confusion  ? 

"Is  it  possible  to  reduce  such  discordant  material  to 
symmetry  and  order  ?  It  is  evidently  impossible  to  have 
the  same  kind  of  symmetry  and  order,  and  simple  division 
and  arrangement  of  studies,  which  are  found  in  English 
and  American  institutions.  But  the  plan  pursued  has 
been  thus  far  successful.  It  demands  great  labor,  and  a 
large  force  of  teachers,  and  numerous  classes  and  sub- 
divisions of  studies. 

"The  plan  is  to  have  each  student  to  commence  his 
course  in  his  own  language,  unless  he  is  ah'eady  well 
trained  in  it.  In  his  own  language  he  pursues  some  of 
the  preparatory  studies,  such  as  geography,  history,  arith- 
metic, etc.  At  the  same  time  he  is  studying  English  and 
French.  The  former  is  to  be  the  medium  of  prosecuting 
his  higher  studies,  and  is  the  unifier  of  all  the  nationali- 
ties and  sub-classes  in  the  college.  Here,  finally,  they  all 
meet  on  common  ground,  and  all  the  distinctions  of  race 
and  religion  are  merged  in  common  interests  and  pursuits. 
It  is  much  to  be  regi'etted  that  so  many  leave  as  soon  as 
they  are  tolerably  well  fitted  for  the  counting-house,  but 
still  many  have  made  very  respectable  attainments  in  the 
various  studies  of  their  course.  The  chief  nationalities 
are  the  Bulgarian,  Greek,  and  Armenian. 

"The  first  year  the  college  had  no  Bulgarian  students, 
the  second  year  it  had  one,  and  in  the  seventh  year,  39 
out  of  72. 


38  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

''TTie  Bulgarians  have  not  only  taken  the  lead  in  num- 
Ibers,  but,  to  our  great  surprise,  in  scholarship. 

"In  the  single  department  of  design  (drawing),  they  do 
not  exhibit  any  special  aptitude  or  inaptitude.  Armenians 
have  always  borne  off  the  prizes  in  that  department,  but 
in  all  others  the  Bulgarians  have  excelled.  A  large  pro- 
portion of  them  are  earnest,  persistent  scholars.  They 
have  a  marked  social  and  patriotic  character  worthy  of  all 
praise :  they  will  aid  each  other,  and  push  forward  the 
lagging,  and  patiently  drill  those  who  are  far  in  the  rear, 
never  being  satisfied  unless  all  are  moving  on  together. 
There  have  been  instances  of  habits  unfortunately  con- 
tracted which  could  not  be  allowed,  but  generally  they 
yield  to  a  correct  moral  training. 

"We  consider  the  Bulgarians  a  race  capable  of  great 
things." 

I  would  call  my  reader's  attention  to  the  praiseworthy 
conduct  of  these  Bulgarian  students,  of  "never  being 
satisfied  unless  all  are  moving  on  together."  It  is  here 
that  we  arrive  at  the  secret  of  the  cohesion  of  the  nation 
through  the  many  centuries  of  trouble  and  persecution  it 
has  endured ;  and  in  this  particular  point  it  is  infinitely 
superior  to  the  Greek  in  nation-making  qualities,  since 
the  latter  are  in  a  constant  state  of  ferment  from  an  excess 
of  individuality. 

In  my  humble  opinion,  the  principles  upon  which 
"  Robert  College  "  is  founded,  viz.,  that  of  giving  a  com- 
mon education  to  all  creeds,  must  form  the  foundation  of 
the  regeneration  of  Turkey.  If  education  is  made  the 
path  to  civil  and  military  employment,  irrespective  of 
creed ;  if,  in  fact,  a  national  university  can  be  founded 
for  the  manufacture  of  educated  officials,  we  may  hope  to 
see  the  door  of  intrigue  barricaded,  and  Justice  raising 
her  head. 

For  the  benefit  of  those  of  my  readers  who  take  an  in- 
terest in  the  subject,  I  give  in  Appendix  A  the  prospectus 
and  course  of  studies  issued  at  Robert  College.  Another 
channel  of  education  for  the  Bulgarian  people  is  found  in 


THE  BULGARIANS.  30 

the  Roman  Catholic  Propaganda,  whose  agents  are  actively 
employed  throughout  Turkey,  but  in  the  vilaiet  of  Adri- 
anople  they  have  not  met  with  the  same  success  which 
has  attended  the  Protestant  missions. 

This  may  be  attributed  to  their  want  of  tact  in  neglect- 
ing the  educational  movement  amongst  the  people,  and 
assuring  them  that  there  was  no  hope  of  their  ever  get- 
ting the  sanction  of  the  Ottoman  Government  to  the  re- 
vival of  the  Bulgarian  National  Church,  and  that  their 
only  hope  of  peace  was  to  place  themselves  under  the 
supremacy  of  Rome. 

The  small  number  of  converts  they  made  were  called 
"Uniates,"  bat  they  are  now  fast  disappearing. 

There  are  two  Roman  Catholic  schools  in  Adrianople, 
founded  in  1863.  For  the  last  few  years  one  of  these 
schools  has  been  reorganized.  It  is  conducted  by  Slav 
priests,  principally  Poles  of  the  Congregation  of  the  Res- 
urrection. It  is  attended  by  seventy  pupils,  of  whom 
twenty-five  are  boarders. 

Besides  the  "Uniates"  there  are  other  Roman  Catholics 
called  Paullcians^  who  more  immediately  come  under  the 
influence  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  There  is  a  cer- 
tain interest  attached  to  this  missionary  body,  as  they  are 
supposed  by  some  authors  to  be  the  direct  descendants  of 
the  Armenian  Paulicians,  many  thousands  of  whom  were 
banished  to  Thrace  in  the  tenth  century  by  the  Emperor 
John  Zimisces.  They  originated  in  the  seventh  century 
at  Samosata,  and  were  peculiar  in  rejecting  the  Old,  and 
holding  only  to  the  New  Testament,  and  especially  to  the 
doctrines  of  St.  Paul.  They  had  a  great  contempt  for 
images  and  relics,  and  denied  any  Divine  presence  in  the 
Holy  Sacrament.  The  founder  of  the  sect  was  Constan- 
tine  Sylvanus,  who  was  looked  upon  as  an  apostle. 

They  revolted  against  the  Catholics  in  the  ninth  century, 
and,  uniting  with  the  Saracens,  pillaged  Asia  Minor,  but 
they  were  eventually  defeated  by  Basil.  Other  authori- 
ties assert  that  they  rejDresent  the  Bulgarian  sect  called 
the  ''Bogomiles,"  with  whom  the  Armenian  Paulicians 


40  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

united  shortly  after  they  were  brought  into  Thrace.  They 
now  form  a  distinct  community  under  the  immediate  juris- 
diction of  a  bishop  and  fourteen  priests,  appointed  by  the 
Pope,  and  they  number  about  7,000  souls,  2,000  of  whom 
are  at  Philippopolis,  and  the  remainder  are  dispersed  in 
nine  villages  in  the  vicinity.  They  were  converted  to  the 
Roman  Catholic  religion  about  forty-five  years  ago,  and 
their  spiritual  leaders  have  done  their  utmost  to  denation- 
alize them.  They  possess  nine  churches  and  two  schools, 
one  for  boys  and  one  for  girls. 

At  Salonica  the  Roman  Catholics  have  a  convent  and 
school,  and  also  a  training-school  for  boys,  and  a  small 
farm  on  the  outskirts  of  the  town.  They  have  many  con- 
verts, and  here  these  institutions  are  doing  much  good. 

The  Bulgarian  ladies  have  not  been  idle  in  the  work  of 
education  ;  and  during  the  last  ten  years  they  have  estab- 
lished reading-classes  and  associations  for  the  advance- 
ment of  learning  amongst  their  sex,  and  these  associations 
also  raise  funds  for  the  purchase  of  books  for  the  poorer 
classes.  One  of  the  most  popular  authors  of  elementary 
school-books  is  Joachim  Gruef,  a  native  of  Philippopolis, 
and  the  number  of  books  printed  in  Bulgaria  is  increasing 
with  amazing  rapidity.  Bulgarian  newspapers  are  also 
keeping  pace  with  the  advance  in  general  education.  The 
first  was  published  in  1847,  and  was  called  the  Czarigrad- 
sky  Vestnik  (the  "Constantinople  Journal"),  but  its  cir- 
culation was  not  very  extended.  An  attempt  had  been 
made  previously,  by  a  Mr.  J.  Dobrowitz,  to  publish  a 
Journal  at  Odessa,  called  IIiTozrenie  ("Review  of  the 
World"),  but  it  was  immediately  suppressed  by  the  Rus- 
sians, because  it  was  printed  in  the  Bulgarian  vernacular 
and  not  in  Russian.  If  Russia  is  to  have  possession  of 
Bulgaria,  we  know  what  will  become  of  the  present  Bul- 
garian newspapers  !  There  are  now  several  journals,  but 
that  which  has  the  widest  circulation,  and  which  is  the 
organ  of  the  national  party,  is  the  Mdkedonia  ("Macedo- 
nia"). It  is  the  object  of  Russia  to  denationalize  Bulga- 
ria, and  consequently  she  discourages  all  national  litera- 


TEE  BULGARIANS.  41 

ture  ;  and  tlie  very  name  is  effaced  from  the  maps  nsed  at 
the  schools  at  Odessa  and  Nicolaieff,  which  are  much  fre- 
quented by  Bulgarians. 

There  was  a  Bulgarian  colony  in  part  of  Bessarabia 
which  was  denied  the  use  of  its  own  language  so  long  as 
it  was  imder  the  Russian  rule,  but  no  sooner  was  it  an- 
nexed to  Roumania,  by  the  Treaty  of  Paris  in  185G,  than 
the  Bulgarian  vernacular  was  introduced  into  all  the 
schools. 

Russia  distributes,  through  her  consuls,  ecclesiastical 
books  and  ornaments  in  profusion  to  certain  monasteries 
and  churches.  At  the  large  monastery  of  Rilo,  at  which 
I  was  stopping  for  some  days,  a  large  portion  of  the  reve- 
nue is  derived  from  Russia,  to  the  amount,  I  was  told,  of 
£4,000  per  annum.  Many  of  these  monasteries  are  cen- 
ters of  intrigue.  Some  of  the  poorer  classes  of  the  Bul- 
garians are  selected  and  sent  to  Russia  to  be  educated, 
and  afterwards  are  returned  to  their  own  country  as  the 
secret  agents  of  their  intriguing  master. 

The  Russian  consuls  frequently  give  money  on  the  part 
of  their  government  towards  the  construction  of  a  church, 
but  seldom  towards  a  school. 

The  revival  of  the  Bulgarian  National  Church,  to  be 
mentioned  presently,  has  been  a  great  obstacle  to  Russian 
intrigue,  which  is  usually  carried  on  through  the  ecclesias- 
tical rulers  of  the  people. 

Efforts  were  made  in  1867,  by  some  of  the  leading  Bul- 
garians, to  induce  the  Ottoman  Government  to  establish  a 
special  board  of  public  instruction  in  Bulgaria,  with  power 
to  determine  all  questions  concerning  the  public  and  pri- 
vate funds  appropriated  to  the  supj)ort  of  the  national 
schools,  the  discipline,  method  of  instruction,  jDreparation 
of  text-books,  appointment  and  dismissal  of  teachers,  etc. 
The  board  to  be  composed  of  five  Bulgarians  elected  by 
the  people,  and  to  be  under  the  presidency  of  the  Sultan's 
Minister  for  Public  Instruction  ;  and,  with  a  view  to  ena- 
ble the  board  to  bestow  grants  for  educational  purposes, 
it  was  proposed  to  levy  annually,  through  government 


42  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

agents,  a  school  rate  of  two  piasters  (4d.)  from  every  male 
Bulgarian. 

Such  a  system  of  government  support  would  have  been 
of  inestimable  service  in  encouraging  and  increasing  the 
national  educational  movement,  but  the  Porte  was  passive, 
and  nothing  was  done.  As  may  easily  be  surmised,  the 
National  Church  question  was  but  a  corollary  to  that  of 
education,  and  the  success  of  the  one  brought  success  to 
the  other.  We  have  seen  how,  in  many  districts,  the  peo- 
ple had  renounced  allegiance  to  the  supremacy  of  the 
Greek  Patriarch,  and  had  appropriated  the  ecclesiastical 
domains  under  the  passive  sanction  of  the  Porte,  and  it 
now  only  required  official  sanction  to  consummate  the 
dearest  wishes  of  the  great  bulk  of  the  Bulgarian  people, 
and  to  hand  back  to  them  the  control  of  their  much-loved 
National  Church,  which  had  been  lost  for  more  than  a  cen- 
tury. For  the  benefit  of  those  of  my  readers  who  take  an 
interest  in  the  subject,  I  give  in  Appendix  B  the  full  text 
of  the  firman  which  settled  the  long-pending  dispute. 

It  has  been  seen  that  the  Bulgarians  form  the  bulk  of 
the  rural  j)opulation  from  the  western  frontier  of  Mace- 
donia to  the  Black  Sea,  and  from  the  Danube  to  the  Sea 
of  Marmora,  and  that  the  appellation  of  Bulgaria  given 
by  maps  to  the  country  north  of  the  Balkan  might  be 
paralleled  by  calling  Northumberland  England.  The 
original  capital  of  the  country  was  at  Ochrida,  in  Mace- 
donia. It  was  then  removed  to  Tirnova,  near  the  Danube  ; 
and  the  present  chief  town  may  be  placed  in  Philippopolis. 
The  Bulgarians  located  near  the  Greek  frontier  naturally 
became,  by  force  of  contact,  more  Hellenized  than  their 
fellow-countrymen  who  were  more  distant ;  and  in  the 
former  case  the  Greek  language  overlay  the  Bulgarian — 
that  is  to  say,  it  was  the  social,  while  the  Bulgarian  was 
the  domestic,  dialect. 

From  this  cause  the  influence  of  the  Greek  Church  along 
the  south-western  frontier  was  in  many  places  superior  to 
the  Bulgarian  ecclesiastical  power,  and  the  border  became 
fretted  and  torn  by  the  contending  interests.    But  from 


THE  BULGARIANS.  43 

the  great  bulk  of  the  Bulgarians  a  loud  cry  of  joy  went 
forth  with  the  promulgation  of  the  firman,  and  coupled 
with  it  a  cry  of  gratitude  to  their  Ottoman  rulers.  Obe- 
dience to  the  ruling  power,  and  an  anxiety  to  work  hand- 
in-hand  with  it,  were  prominent  characteristics  of  the 
Bulgarian  population  up  to  the  commencement  of  the,  to 
them,  unhappy  year  of  1876. 

They  felt  that  under  Ottoman  rule  for  the  last  twenty 
years  their  position  and  freedom  had  made  great  advances, 
and  that  it  was  possible  to  work  together  in  the  i)ath  of 
progress.  They  were  eminently  a  law-abiding  people,  and 
the  follo-vving  general  letter,  published  by  the  Bulgarian 
Synod  after  the  granting  of  the  firman,  expresses  truth- 
fully their  relation  with  the  Ottoman  Government : 

A  General  Letter  from  the  Holy  Bulgarian  Synod,  and  from  the 
Bulgarian  University  of  Constantinople,  to  the  Bulgarian 
Provinces,  on  the  event  of  the  successful  termination  of  the 
Bulgarian  Church  Question. 

Our  Beloved  Children  and  Dear  Fellow-couxtrymen  : 

It  is  plain  that  many  hindrances  and  obstacles  have  been  raised 
against  the  inculcation  and  diffusion  of  Christian  instruction 
among  the  Bulgarians,  and  their  prosperity  in  the  Christian  life 
and  enlightenment.  But  the  first  and  greatest  of  all  has  been  the 
establishment  amongst  them  of  pastors  from  another  nation,  who 
have  not  known  the  language  of  this  Christian  people,  and  hence 
were  not  in  a  condition  to  lead  them  into  the  pasture  of  salvation. 
For  this  reason  there  has  been  so  much  spiritual  darkness  in  the 
understanding  of  the  Christian  duties  and  the  teaching  of  the 
Gospel.  The  orthodox  Bulgarians,  true  to  the  faith  of  their 
fathers,  have  always  warmly  desired  and  earnestly  wished  that 
their  churches  might  be  intrusted  to  pastors  taken  from  among 
themselves,  whom  they  know,  and  who  are  acquainted  with  them. 
But  the  Constantinople  Church,  to  whose  judgment,  as  if  directed 
by  the  Lord,  the  Bulgarian  churches  and  the  chief  of  their  priest- 
hood have  subjected  themselves,  has  always  rejected  these  our  just 
and  Christian  wishes  as,  forsooth,  unreasonable  and  opposed  to 
the  Gospel.     In  vain  was  every  means  used  that  our  righteous  de- 


44  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

sires  miglit  be  satisfied  in  harmony  and  love.  In  vain  was  every 
effort  put  forth  that  the  wishes  of  our  hearts  might  be  fulfilled 
quietly  and  with  no  worldly  tumult.  The  Church,  which  we 
have  besought  with  filial  respect  as  her  beloved  children  in  Christ, 
has  not  only  remained  unfriendly  to  our  desires,  has  not  only 
disapproved  and  ridiculed  our  needs  as  fictitious,  but  has  despised 
and  persecuted,  punished  and  tortured,  those  whom  we  have  ap- 
pointed to  represent  to  her  the  above-named  needs.  But  our  na- 
tion is  not  without  protection.  Above  those  who  injure  us,  and 
above  us  who  are  injured,  is  the  civil  ruler,  who  is,  for  us,  the 
servant  of  God  for  good,  and  who  is  sent  for  the  punishment  of 
evil-doers,  and  for  the  praise  of  them  that  do  well. 

This  ruler  is  his  Highness,  our  Sultan,  who,  after  putting  forth 
all  possible  efforts  for  the  reconciliation  of  the  two  discordant 
parties,  as  he  did  not  succeed,  has  been  pleased  at  last  to  divide, 
ecclesiastically,  the  Bulgarians  from  the  Patriarchate  (as  he  had 
formerly  united  them),  through  the  issuing  of  the  necessary  ap- 
proval in  tliis  by  his  high,  and  by  us  honored,  firman,  which  was 
given  us  on  last  Saturday,  the  28tli  of  February.  And  so,  after 
so  many  evils,  after  so  much  unjust  suffering,  after  ten  years  of 
laborious  efforts,  we  see  to-day  the  desire  of  our  fathers,  the  toils 
and  patience  of  the  nation,  and  of  us  all  rewarded  and  crowned 
under  the  righteous  judgment  and  impartiality  of  the  Imperial 
Government.  The  decision  of  our  "  question,"  which  has  drawn 
out  our  efforts  and  attracted  our  attention  for  so  many  years,  is 
the  j)lain  proof  of  the  good-will  and  love  which  the  Imperial 
Government  cherishes  towards  the  Bulgarians.  It  is  a  bright 
evidence  that  it  wishes  to  have  us  under  its  immediate  protection 
and  care  ;  it  is  a  demonstration  that  it  raises  even  us  Bulgarians 
to  the  rank  of  its  true  subjects,  which  we  have  not  had  hitherto, 
because  we  were  represented  before  the  honored  Government 
through  other  of  its  subjects,  foreigners  to  us,  who  neither  were 
acquainted  with  us,  nor  our  life,  nor  our  situation. 

But  the  royal  firman  rescues  us  from  such  a  position — to-day 
we  ourselves  have  the  right  to  govern  our  own  churches.  The 
Bulgarian  language  will,  without  opposition,  be  the  medium  of 
the  sacred  sermon  and  of  Christian  instruction.  Through  it, 
without  molestation,  shall  we  learn  our  duties  toward  God  and 
toward  the  kingdom  established  over  iis  by  Him,  our  obligations 
to  our  neighbors  and  to  ourselves.    No  one  in  the  future  will  be 


THE  BULGARIANS.  45 

able  to  prevent  onr  prosperity  as  Christians  and  as  a  community. 
From  this  time  forth  no  one  will  be  able  to  prevent  the  Bulga- 
rians from  expressing  their  opinions  themselves — incited  by  no 
one  and  speaking  out  their  own  private  preference — that  they  wish 
to  be  united  with  the  Bulgarian  Church,  which,  let  the  Bulgarians 
everywhere  be  assured,  they  will  secure  if  they  are  in  the  major- 
ity. Let  us  hasten  to  profit  by  the  rights  which  the  imperial 
firman  grants  us.  At  the  same  time  let  us  hasten  to  show  also 
our  gratitude  to  the  royal  throne  by  doubling  our  fidelity,  devo- 
tion, and  sincere  obedience  to  it — in  which  qualities  the  Bulga- 
rians especially  excel — since  they  will  exalt  our  position  before 
the  Sultan's  Government,  which  position  others,  enemies  of  the 
Bulgarian  nation,  strive  to  degrade  by  slanders  and  lies. 

This  joyful  and  triumphant  intelligence  of  the  decision  of  the 
Bulgarian  *'  Question  "  we  have  that  it  is  needful  to  place  before 
you  that  you  may  rejoice  in  the  Lord,  and  raise  to  God  a  grateful 
hymn  for  the  long  life  of  our  sovereign  emperor,  tlie  Sultan  Ab- 
dul Aziz  Effendim.  For  your  fuller  information  and  assurance 
the  royal  firman  will  be  sent  to  you  as  soon  as  it  is  printed. 

President — Hakion,  of  Joviten,  Intercessor  in  Christ. 
Paxarel,  of  Phillipopolis,         ditto 
Paieseus,  of  Philhpopolis,         ditto 
AuTEEM,  of  Widin,  ditto 

Harion,  of  Makeriopolis,  ditto 

Co7isfantino]}Ie  OrtaJceng,  Sd  March,  1870. 

This  circular  was  followed  by  a  spiritual  letter,  issued 
just  before  Lent  of  the  same  year ;  and  I  give  it  also  in  de- 
tail, because  as  the  former  expresses  the  relations  between 
the  people  and  their  government,  the  latter  gives  an  insight 
to  the  connection  between  the  priesthood  and  their  flock. 
It  is  also  worthy  of  being  read  as  an  appeal  to  the  feelings 
of  the  peox)le  by  parables  and  language  which  remind  us 
of  the  days  of  the  early  Christians. 

Spiritual  Circular  Letter  from  the  Bulgariai^t  Synod. 
Reverend  Priests,  Honored  Leaders  and  Elders,  Blessed  Trades- 
men, inhabitants  of  the  divinely  favored  city,  etc.,  etc.,  and 
of  its  surrounding  district. 


46  TURKEY  m  EUROPE. 

Our  Beloved  Children"  : 

May  grace  and  peace  be  with  you  from  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ, 
and  from  us  also  a  humble  prayer  and  blessing. 

Although  we  are  bodily  separated  from  you,  yet  we  are  always 
anxious  for  your  spiritual  prosperity  in  every  good,  and  hence  in 
fulfillment  of  our  pastoral  duty  we  have  judged  it  best  to  send  you 
the  following  paternal  instruction  appropriate  to  the  present  days. 

Behold,  we  have  now  reached  the  "  Great  Fast,"  which,  in 
much  wisdom,  our  orthodox  Church  has  enjoined  for  our  spirit- 
ual salvation,  and  for  a  fitting  preparation  for  approaching  the 
dreadful  and  sacred  sufferings  resplendent  from  bright  deeds,  and 
the  glorious  resurrection  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ. 

As  at  one  time  there  was  spread  out  before  the  Hebrews  the 
width  of  the  Eed  Sea,  which  it  was  necessary  they  should  cross 
to  enter  into  the  Promised  Land,  so  we  have  also  now  before  us  the 
wide  extent  of  the  fast,  which  must  be  passed  over  before  we  reach 
the  radiant  resurrection  of  Christ.  As  they  were  not  terrified  by 
the  depths  of  the  sea,  but,  led  by  their  conductor  and  prophet, 
dared  to  enter  and  pass  through  the  Red  Sea,  which  was  miracu- 
lously divided  before  them,  so  also  we,  guided  by  and  relying  upon 
the  power  and  grace  of  our  leader,  the  Church  and  her  bridegroom, 
ought  bravely  and  heroically  to  pass  through  the  present  fast. 

Some  days  ago  was  opened  the  arena  of  the  Christian  conflicts 
of  repentance,  self-restraint,  and  humiliation,  of  which  virtues  our 
mother  herself,  the  Christian  Church,  gives  us  an  examjile.  Do 
you  not  see,  brethren,  how  she  leaves  her  beautiful  garments,  and 
clothes  herself  in  black,  as  a  sign  of  affliction  and  sorrow  ?  Do 
you  not  hear  how  she  cries  out,  how  sadly  every  day  she  prays  to 
her  eternal  spouse  for  us  her  children  ?  Is  there  any  one  of  her 
children,  the  orthodox  Christian,  who  will  not  follow  her  example, 
who  will  not  also  himself  descend  clothed  in  bright  armor,  and 
take  a  part  in  the  impending  spiritual  conflict  in  which  the  hon- 
ored ones,  who  have  suffered  lawfully,  are  rightfully  crowned  ? 
Will  there  be  found  one  of  our  spiritual  and  pious  children,  the 
Bulgarians,  who  unconcernedly  will  rejoice  in  a  worldly  manner  in 
the  days  of  repentance,  and  by  this  conduct  will  both  injure  him- 
self and  give  offense  to  his  brethren  ?  We  do  not  believe  that 
the  sons  of  the  orthodox  Bulgarian  Church  will  not  listen  to  the 
voice  of  their  mother  by  leading  a  careless  and  sinful  life. 

When  the  appropriate  time  has  come  for  repentance,  for  self- 


THE  BULGARIANS.  47 

restraint,  for  ])utting  away  the  lusts  of  the  flesh,  and  for  the  per- 
formance of  good  and  pious  deeds,  it  should  be  faithfully  observed. 
It  is  little  enough  that  it  comes  but  once  in  the  entire  year. 

Perhaps  there  are  Christians  who  have  had  it  as  the  one  aim  of 
their  thoughts  and  acts,  to  satisfy  their  insatiable  human  lusts ; 
but  it  is  quite  long  enough  that  many  the  greater  part  of  their 
lives  are  in  bondage,  not  to  the  Gospel  and  its  instructions,  as 
they  should  be,  as  true  followers  and  disciples  of  Jesus  Christ, 
but  to  their  own  sinful  wills. 

Let  them  follow  the  example  of  all  gardeners,  who,  when  they 
wish  a  tree  to  yield  abundance  of  healthy  fruit,  prune  it  from 
dry  and  fruitless  branches.  Let  us  also  purge  our  will  from  evil 
and  unworthy  impulses,  that  the  fragrant  flower  of  evangelical 
virtues  may  spring  up  and  bear  the  good  fruits  of  a  holy  and 
Christian  life.  The  whole  life  of  a  Christian,  0  ye  children, 
should  be  a  succession  of  good  and  pious  acts,  but  especially  now 
in  the  time  of  the  fast. 

Unfortunately,  however,  a  wrong  idea,  a  false  conception  of  the 
fast,  has  been  diffused  and  propagated  among  many.  They 
think  that  if  they  simply  leave  off  some  kinds  of  food  they  keep 
the  truest  fast,  they  fulfill  abundantly  the  command  of  the  Church  ; 
and  they  deprive  themselves  of  some  favorite  dishes,  but  con- 
tinue to  get  drunk  and  revile  each  other,  forgetful  of  the  fearful 
words  of  Jesus  Christ,  "Whosoever  shall  say  unto  his  brother, 
Raca,  shall  be  in  danger  of  condemnation."  They  will  not  eat 
meat,  but  they  will  wrong  their  brother  unmercifully  ;  they  will 
not  eat  cheese,  but  they  will  grieve  the  innocent  without  mercy, 
and  with  no  fear  of  the  Lord. 

The  Jews  at  one  time  observed  such  a  fast  without  leaving  off 
their  evil  deeds  and  works,  but  behold  what  the  Lord  God  said 
concerning  it  through  the  prophet  Isaiah,  "  Your  new  moons  and 
appointed  feasts  my  soul  liateth."  Indeed,  the  object  of  the  fast 
is  the  weakening  of  the  bodily  appetites,  and  the  performance  of 
good  deeds.  But  since  different  kinds  of  food  contribute  to  the 
excitement  and  arousing  of  these  appetites,  therefore  the  Church 
of  Christ  imposes  on  her  children  relinquishment  of  some  of  them, 
without  ceasing,  at  the  same  time,  to  require  of  us  the  true  fast 
which  is  most  beautifully  and  divinely  described  in  the  following 
hymn,  *'  Let  us  keep  an  acceptable  fast  approved  of  God  ;  the 
true  fast  is  the  abandonment  of  evil,  the  restraint  of  the  tongue, 


48  TUBKET  IN  EUROPE. 

the  putting  away  of  anger,  tlie  banishment  of  hist,  and  the  for- 
saking of  evil  speaking,  Ijang,  and  perjury."  Behold,  therefore, 
0  children,  what  is  the  true  fast  which  the  orthodox  Church  re- 
quires of  her  children  :  not  only  the  deprivation  of  pleasant  food, 
but,  before  all,  the  forsaking  of  evil  and  ungodly  deeds.  For 
what  in  truth  doth  it  profit  me  that  I  eat  no  meat,  but  swallow 
down  the  substance  of  the  unfortunate  poor  ?  What  gain  that  I 
taste  no  flesh,  but  I  lift  a  cutting  tongue  against  the  innocent, 
and  unjustly  drag  my  brother  before  the  courts  ?  See  what  the 
Holy  Scripture  saith  in  such  a  case,  "  Fast  not  in  strife  and  con- 
tention, but  love  truth  and  peace.  Put  away  therefore  the  works 
of  darkness,  and  be  clothed  in  the  garments  of  light."  Beloved 
children,  visit  regularly  the  churches  where  unceasingly  flows  the 
water  of  life,  the  divine  and  soul-saving  instruction  of  Jesus 
Christ,  where  the  affecting  hymns  which  are  sung  do  exceedingly 
discipline  the  spirit  of  the  Cliristiau  in  good  and  holy  feelings, 
which  are  the  beginning  and  root  of  good  actions.  Attend  faith- 
fully to  the  instructions  of  the  Church,  which  wonderfully  directs 
a  man  as  to  his  Christian  and  human  duties.  Fulfill  all  the  obli- 
gations which  the  orthodox  Church — anxious  for  their  salvation 
— enjoins  upon  every  one  of  her  children.  Eepent  and  confess 
your  sins  before  your  father  confessor.  The  Church  has  now 
opened  a  j)ath  of  repentance  and  confession,  which,  entering, 
wash  yourselves  from  the  pollution  of  sin,  and  arm  yourselves 
with  a  firm  and  unyielding  resolution  to  return  no  more  to  your 
former  sinful  life  ;  and  thus  cleansed  and  washed,  approach  the 
saving  table  of  God  the  Father,  that  you  may  be  innocent  of  the 
body  and  blood  of  his  Son  our  Saviour.  But  afterwards,  as  you 
wear  the  wedding  garments,  unitedly  follow  our  instructor  and 
eternal  teacher,  the  God  Man,  Jesus  Christ,  that  we  may  be 
counted  worthy  also  to  see  those  great  holy  days  in  which  was 
finished  the  divine  work  of  our  salvation — as  again  to  this  effect 
sings  the  orthodox  Church,  "  We  begin  the  sacred  time  of  fast ; 
entering  a  spiritual  conflict,  we  purify  the  soul,  we  purify  the 
flesh."  Thus  we  fast  from  all  human  lusts  ;  we  delight  our 
spirits  with  our  virtue,  completing  it  in  love,  that  we  may  all 
attain  to  see  the  spotless  Christ  of  God,  and  may  rejoice  in  the 
sacred  Passover. 

To  Him  belong  glory,  honor,  and  worship  forever  and  ever. 
Amen. 


THE  B  UL GABIANS.  49 

The  piiblication  of  the  firman  was  a  severe  blow  to  the 
Greek  hierarchy,  and  a  part  of  then-  venom  was  expended 
by  the  Greek  Patriarch  excommunicating  all  Bulgarians 
who  took  advantage  of  the  independence  granted  to  the 
Bulgarian  Church. 

As  already  stated,  the  district  bordering  upon  Greece, 
of  which  Monastir  may  be  called  the  center,  was  disturbed 
by  rival  religious  interests,  but  the  majority  of  the  Bulga- 
rians in  this  district  were  as  jealous  of  their  new  privileges 
as  were  their  countrymen  in  Thrace.  Serious  difficulties 
soon  arose  in  consequence  of  the  powerful  Greek  element 
mingled  with  the  Bulgarian.  The  town  of  Kiuprili  and 
some  neighboring  villages  in  Macedonia  petitioned  the 
Porte  to  be  placed  under  the  new  National  Church, 
and  a  Bulgarian  bishop,  named  Agos  Milos,  was  granted ; 
but  this  immediately  brought  forth  an  indignant  pro- 
test from  the  Greek  Ecumenical  Council,  who  repre- 
sented to  the  Porte  that  a  Bulgarian  bishop  being  located 
in  a  Greek  diocese  was  contrary  to  the  spirit  of  the  finnan, 
and  they  insisted  on  his  being  removed.  After  considera- 
tion the  Porte  consented  ;  but  such  was  the  determination 
of  the  Bulgarian  ecclesiastic  to  keep  his  post  at  all  hazards 
that  he  adopted  the  Roman  Catholic  faith,  as  a  cover  to 
the  administration  of  his  own  creed,  and  as  a  checkmate 
to  the  Greek  party.  This,  of  course,  brought  up  all  the 
Roman  Catholic  priests  to  the  support  of  the  bishop,  and 
amidst  the  contending  parties  many  disturbances  occurred, 
so  the  Porte  very  wisely  obliged  the  Bulgarian  bishop  to 
leave  the  district.  The  Wallachian  and.  Albanian  Greek 
Christians,  who  are  strongly  represented  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Monastir,  disapproved  of  the  conduct  of  the  Greek 
Patriarch  in  this  instance,  and  showed  a  disposition  to 
resent  his  assumption  of  power. 

This  Wallachian  sympathy  was  the  progenitor  of  fur- 
ther disturbances,  and  at  Kiuprili,  in  1874,  a  quarrel  arose 
because  the  Bulgarians  would  not  permit  a  Wallachian 
woman  who  had  died  to  be  buried  by  Greek  priests  in  the 
local  cemetery,  which  was  taken  possession  of  when  the 
4 


50  TURKEY  m  EUROPE. 

diocese  was  placed  nnder  the  Exarcli.  The  result  was  a 
party  fight  with  stones  and  sticks,  and  the  police  had  to 
interfere  to  disperse  the  combatants,  but  not  before  one 
Bulgarian  had  been  killed  and  several  wounded.  At  an- 
other Bulgarian  village,  Malesh,  the  Greek  Metropolitan 
of  Shoumitza,  insisted  on  visiting  the  people  in  his  eccles- 
iastical capacity,  although  warned  not  to  do  so  by  the 
villagers.  His  persistency  cost  him  dear,  for  a  rabble 
of  men,  women,  and  children  collected,  and  would  have 
stoned  him  to  death  had  not  the  neighboring  Mudir 
(Turkish  magistrate)  and  some  Turkish  peasants  anived 
in  time  to  rescue  him.  Amidst  these  disturbances  a  cir- 
cumstance occurred  which  shows  the  strong  faith  which 
exists,  or  rather  existed,  in  the  minds  of  the  people  regard- 
ing the  all-powerful  influence  with  the  Porte  of  the  British 
Government.  In  1874  the  Bulgarians  in  Macedonia,  in 
their  religious  struggles,  actually  petitioned  the  British 
embassy  to  interfere  in  their  behalf,  and  to  have  them 
placed  under  the  ecclesiastical  rule  of  the  Bulgarian  Ex- 
arch !  They  even  went  so  far  as  to  ask  whether,  in  the 
event  of  their  becoming  Protestants,  the  British  Govern- 
ment would  watch  over  their  interests !  There  is  a  sim- 
plicity in  this  proposal  which  is  charming,  but  it  proves 
that  the  population  of  Turkey  is  fully  alive  to  the  influ- 
ence possessed  by  the  foreign  embassies  in  the  govern- 
ment of  the  country,  and  how  easy  it  is  for  any  designing 
foreign  government  to  create  disturbance  by  holding  out 
false  hopes  regarding  any  subject  which  agitates  the  popu- 
lar mind. 

It  is  by  this  means  that  Russia  has  stirred  up  agitation 
and  trouble  throughout  the  country,  and,  worldng  over  a 
space  of  many  years  with  one  fixed  and  persistent  policy, 
she  has  used  with  consummate  skill  the  art  of  intrigue, 
and  brought  the  unhappy  country  to  its  present  state  of 
misery. 

The  proofs  of  this  underhand  diplomacy  are  everywhere 
apparent  to  any  impartial  inquirer  who  chooses  to  travel 
through  the  land,  and  the  slow  and  subtle  system  of  poi- 


THE  BULGARIANS.  51 

soning  must  ronse  the  indignation  of  any  lionest  man. 
The  germ  was  visible  after  the  death  of  Peter  tlie  Great, 
and,  like  a  rank  fungus,  it  has  fructified  by  geometrical 
progression  until  it  has  culminated  in  the  present  crisis. 
The  goal  of  Russia's  ambition  is  the  possession  of  Constan- 
tinople ;  and  if  her  empire  does  not  burst  asunder  from 
over  expansion,  she  will  probably  reach  it  in  course  of 
time.  Her  first  tampering  with  the  Bulgarians  commenced 
in  1777,  during  the  reign  of  Catherine  II.,  who,  in  her 
dreams  of  the  conquest  of  the  country,  christened  one  of 
her  sons  Alexander,  and  the  other  Constantine.  But  it 
was  at  the  Peace  of  Bucharest,  in  1812,  that  Russia  gained 
her  power  of  using  intrigue  with  effect.  By  this  treaty  a 
right  of  protectorate  was  given  to  Russia  over  the  Greek 
Church  in  certain  parts  of  the  Turkish  Empire  ;  and  as  the 
Bulgarians,  who  formed  the  bulk  of  the  population,  were 
under  the  control  of  that  Church,  it  is  easy  to  see  what  a 
good  basis  of  operation  was  thus  obtained.  Indirectly,  it 
made  Russia  an  element  in  the  government  of  Turkey. 

This  right  was  confirmed  at  the  Convention  of  Acker- 
man,  in  1826,  and  the  fomentation  of  the  Greek  rebellion 
against  Turkey  soon  followed.  By  1828  the  Bulgarians 
were  brought  to  look  upon  Russia  as  the  power  which 
was  to  give  them  freedom  ;  but  the  campaign  of  1828-29, 
although  successful  to  the  Russian  arms,  was  fought  in  the 
midst  of  the  Bulgarian  people,  and  the  devastation  which 
followed  the  contending  armies,  and  the  final  evacuation 
of  the  country  by  the  Russians,  made  them  regret  the 
sympathy  which  they  had  so  freely  exhibited  during  the 
campaign,  and  which  now  only  brought  to  them  the  in- 
creased persecution  of  their  Ottoman  rulers.  Russian 
blandishments  and  promises  are,  however,  skillfully  made, 
and  in  a  short  time  the  Bulgarians  again  looked  upon 
Russia  as  their  future  liberator  ;  and  on  the  breaking  out 
of  the  Crimean  War,  they  watched  the  result  with  anxious 
interest.  From  this  time,  Russian  influence  began  to 
wane,  and  a  very  powerful  enemy  arose  to  Russian  in- 
trigue.    This  enemy  was  the  Bulgarian  educational  move- 


52  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

ment,  whicli  tauglit  the  people  how  Russia  had  dealt 
with  her  promises  to  other  nations,  and  the  amount  of 
freedom  she  allotted  to  them  after  they  fell  into  her 
power.  Much  information  was  also  derived  from  immi- 
grant Poles,  who  were  scattered  about  Turkey  as  engineers 
and  surveyors ;  and  thus  the  cry  of  anguish  from  Poland, 
as  a  warning  voice,  reached  the  Bulgarian  people.  Russia 
had  no  longer  the  ear  of  the  Bulgarians,  and  had,  there- 
fore, to  change  her  tactics ;  and  she  soon  saw  that,  with  a 
feeble  monarch,  the  greatest  enemy  to  Turkey  might  be 
realized  in  her  own  government,  and,  with  patience  and 
perseverance,  she  lured  the  weak  Sultan  to  national  suicide. 

In  1867,  the  Cretan  insurrection  having  been  fanned 
into  a  flame,  it  was  necessary  to  back  it  by  a  rising  in 
Bulgaria;  but  I  cannot  here  give  Russia  credit  for  her 
usual  caution,  for  the  whole  thing  was  a  complete  bungle 
from  beginning  to  end.  She  usually  stands  behind  the 
curtain  and  pulls  the  strings  which  work  the  puppets,  but 
in  this  case  she  let  the  curtain  fall,  and  the  whole  sham 
was  exposed.  The  programme  was  to  promote  brigandage 
on  a  large  scale  in  Bulgaria,  next  to  show  that  the  country 
was  in  open  rebellion,  and  then  to  call  for  intervention. 
"The  Comite  Secret"  was  established  at  Bucharest  m 
order  to  create  a  diversion  in  favor  of  the  Cretans  by  a 
rising,  however  small,  in  Bulgaria.  Russian  and  G-reek 
agents  were  included  in  this  "Comite,"  and  money  and 
arms  were  freely  distributed  to  G-reek  klepti.  They  re- 
ceived orders  to  plunder  and  pillage  Bulgaria,  and  to  com- 
pel the  inhabitants  to  join  them. 

But  I  cannot  do  better,  in  addition  to  the  above  account, 
which  I  obtained  from  the  country  itself,  than  give  an  ex- 
tract from  the  writings  of  the  late  Lord  Strangford,  a 
straightforward  English  nobleman,  gifted  with  a  keen 
knowledge  of  human  nature,  an  unusual  share  of  common 
sense,  and  a  wonderful  power  of  expressing  it.  He  may 
be  taken  as  one  of  our  best  authorities  on  the  Eastern 
Question ;  and  this  is  what  he  says  of  the  so-called  Bul- 
garian rebellion  of  1867 : 


THE  BULGARIANS.  53 

"Some  three  weeks  ago  we  undertook  to  bring  clearly 
before  our  readers  the  exact  method  by  which  spurious 
insurrections  were  hatched  and  forced  into  existence  in 
Turkey,  with  the  deliberate  object  of  establishing  a  suffi- 
cient show  of  anarchy,  bloodshed,  and  massacres,  calcu- 
lated to  precipitate  a  diplomatic  or  an  armed  intervention 
on  the  part  of  the  greater  powers  of  Europe,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  numbing  and  paralyzing  all  Turkish  Grovernment 
in    Turkey.     That  was  then   being    done    by  bands    of 
brigands,  recruited,  subsidized,    organized,  and  directed 
from  without  principally  by  a  committee  at  Bucharest. 
They  received  orders  to  break  out  into  open  plunder  and 
pillage  all  over  Bulgaria,  so  as  to  compel  the  peaceable 
Christian  peasantry  to  join  their  ranks  and  'rise  against 
their  o^Dpressors,'  where  possible  ;  it  being  fully  anticipated 
that  the  journals  of  the  West  could  either  be  blinded  to 
the  real  nature  of  such  a  movement,  or  else  would  be  self- 
blinded,   and   would    sympathize  actively  with  it  as  a 
natural  and  spontaneous  revolution  on  the  part  of  those 
who,  by  the  imperfect  light  of  European  public  opinion, 
ignorant  of  details,  and  seeking  refuge  in  generalities, 
would  be  assumed  as  certain  to  make  common  cause  Avith 
their  insurgent  fellow-Christians  of  Crete.     The  extreme 
energy  and  activity  of  Midhat  Pacha,  governor  of  Bulgaria 
north  of  the  Balkan,  completely  defeated  this  delectable 
scheme  of  political  rattening.     He  made  short  work  of  the 
filibusters,  being  helped  to  the  utmost  of  tJielr  power  by  the 
Bulgarian  Christian  peasantry. 

"  These  honest  men  determined  to  clear  the  country  of 
these  rascals,  and  they  turned  to  and  hunted  them  down 
everywhere — even  to  the  very  doors,  it  may  be,  of  the 
consulates  of  the  guaranteeing  powers.  The  peasantry, 
our  readers  will  be  pleased  to  remark,  is  the  same  Bulga- 
rian peasantry  which,  in  our  eyes,  is  disaffected  by  hy- 
pothesis, and  which  it  would  be  quite  contrary  to  '  our 
experience  of  the  East '  not  to  suppose  certain  to  be  sym- 
pathetically affected  toward  the  so-called  Cretan  insur- 
gents, and  disposed  to  create  a  diversion  on  their  behalf. 


54  TURKEY  m  EUROPE. 

Many  curious  documents  appear  to  have  come  to  light  in 
connection  with  this  outbreak,  to  which  the  Turkish 
authorities  will  act  msely  in  giving  the  most  entire  and 
remorseless  publicity  at  all  hazards. 

"For  the  present  we  confine  ourselves  to  the  summary 
of  a  simple  document,  apparently  a  letter,  found  on  the 
person  of  one  of  the  brigands,  who  was  shot  off-hand 
shortly  after  he  was  taken. 

"This  man,  Costaki  by  name,  seems  to  have  been  a 
person  of  some  little  substance,  who  had  been  induced  to 
trust  his  whole  capital,  amounting  to  a  couple  of  hundred 
ducats,  to  the  Bucharest  Committee,  under  a  Fenian  bond, 
or  guarantee  of  repayment  of  three  times  that  sum  out  of 
the  spoil — the  spoil  of  Christian  peasantry  by  '  Christian ' 
liberators,  be  it  remembered,  in  case  the  movement  turned 
out  all  well. 

"  'You  have  deceived  me  with  your  insurrection,'  wrote 
the  unfortunate  man  ;  '  you  sent  me  into  Turkey  expecting 
to  find  a  disaffected  province  ready  to  rise,  instead  of  a 
hostile  people  of  Bulgarians,  hostile  in  deeds,  too,  not 
only  in  words,  for  it  is  by  Bulgarians  that  I  am  arrested 
and  given  up  to  the  authorities.  We  are  shot  down  in 
the  plains,  and  starved  in  the  mountains,  and  have  noth- 
ing for  it  but  to  surrender  ourselves  to  law.  Is  that  the 
way  you  pretend  to  regenerate  a  people,  and  to  work  for 
the  good  of  the  Bulgarian  race  ?  Is  that  your  holy  work, 
in  the  name  of  civilization  and  progress?  My  worldly 
goods  are  destroyed,  my  house  is  desolate,  my  life  I  am 
about  to  lay  down  in  the  flower  of  my  age.  May  God 
smite  you,  and  all  those  who  act  with  you — smite  you 
with  a  chastisement  even  more  terrible  than  that  which 
your  victims  are  doomed  to  suffer ! ' 

"We  have  no  comment  to  offer  upon  this,  nor  had  we 
— who  have  long  paid  attention  to  the  condition  and 
prospects  of  the  most  numerous  and  the  most  worthy 
Christian  race  in  Turkey  —  ever  the  slightest  doubt 
about  the  loyalty  and  good  sense  of  the  Bulgarian  pop- 
ulation, whose  immediate  want,  in  so  far  as  they  have 


THE  BULGARIANS.  65 

any,  is  not  to  turn  the  Turks  but  the  Greeks  out  of  the 
country."* 

Now  I  beg  my  reader  to  remember  that  these  words 
were  written  not  longer  ago  than  1867,  by  a  man  thor- 
oughly versed  in  the  Eastern  Question,  and  intimately 
acquainted  with  the  Bulgarian  peoi)le. 

In  the  following  year  another  attempt  to  manufacture 
rebellion  was  made  from  the  same  quarter,  and  with  pre- 
cisely similar  results.  At  this  time  the  Russian  general 
Bobricoff,  accompanied  by  six  engineer  officers,  and  en- 
gaged by  the  Russian  Government,  Avas  making  a  survey 
of  Bulgaria  and  Thrace. 

It  is  necessary  now  to  remember  the  social  state  of  this 
part  of  the  country  lying  immediately  north  and  south  of 
the  long  range  of  the  Balkan. 

Unto,  a  very  recent  period,  the  mountains  had  been 
infested  by  brigands  —  vauriens,  from  the  Circassian, 
Turkish,  Greek,  and  Bulgarian  nations,  and  the  remnants 
of  this  lawless  horde  were  still  in  existence  in  consider- 
able numbers,  and  merely  kept  down  by  the  strong  arm 
of  the  law,  acting  through  a  large  body  of  military  and 
police.  Had  it  not  been  for  the  energy  and  promptitude 
of  Midhat  Pacha,  this  barbarous  horde  of  murderers  would 
have  burst  its  bonds  and  devastated  the  country,  as  it  teas 
intended  it  should,  do.  It  is  asserted,  I  believe  on  good 
authority,  that  such  was  the  influence  which  had  been 
gradually  gained  by  General  Ignatieff  over  the  weak  Sul- 
tan Abdul  Aziz,  that  it  was  intended,  if  the  so-called  Bul- 
garian rebellion  succeeded,  to  call  in  the  aid  of  Russian 
troojDS  to  quell  it ! 

In  1874  I  was  traveling  through  the  whole  of  this  coun- 
try, and  stopped  in  many  of  the  villages  which  are  now 
burnt  and  laid  in  ruins  through  the  late  melancholy  means 
employed  to  quell  imaginary  rebellion.  Wherever  I  halted 
I  was  the  guest  of  Bulgarians,  and,  on  some  occasions,  of 
the  schoolmasters  of  the  towns  and  villages.     In  Bulgaria, 

*  "Select  Writings  of  Viscount  Strangford,"  vol.  i.,  p.  167. 


56  TURRET  IN  EUROPE. 

if  information  is  wanted,  there  is  no  man  better  capable  of 
giving  it  than  the  schoolmaster.  He  is  the  pulse  of  the 
people,  and  by  feeling  it  you  can  judge  of  the  state  of 
their  health.  I  never  saw  a  country  which  looked  less 
like  the  seat  of  rebellion.  The  people  were  prosperous, 
peaceful,  and  contented,  and  their  whole  thoughts  were 
concentrated  upon  education  and  progress.  I  learned 
the  force  of  the  so-called  rebellions  of  1867-68,  and  was 
informed  that  foreign  agents  were  still  at  work,  but  with- 
out the  slightest  hope  of  success,  and  that  the  only  result 
of  their  labors  was  the  occasional  drinking  of  revolution- 
ary toasts,  when  heated  with  wine,  by  a  few  good-for- 
nothing  Bulgarian  youths,  deficient  in  brains  ;  that  their 
number  was  so  insignificant  and  their  influence  so  infini- 
tesimal that  they  were  not  worth  mentioning. 

It  was  only  eighteen  months  after  this  that  the  so-called 
rebellion  occurred  which  resulted  in  the  massacre  of  the 
inhabitants  !  The  seeds  of  this  disturbance — for  I  cannot 
call  it  rebellion — were  sown  by  the  same  hands  as  in  1867- 
68,  but  the  gTound  on  which  they  fell  was  in  a  different 
state  of  preparation.  In  the  first  case,  the  rest  of  the 
country  was  at  peace.  Midhat  Pacha,  a  man  of  real  energy 
and  ability,  was  on  the  spot  with  a  well-organized  body 
of  military  and  police,  and  the  disturbance  was  crushed 
as  soon  as  it  had  begun. 

In  the  second  case,  the  country  was  plunged  in  civil  war ; 
the  religious  fanaticism  of  the  Turks  was  roused  by  the 
rebellion  of  some  of  her  Christian  subjects  in  neighboring 
provinces,  their  troops  and  police  were  scattered  over  the 
disturbed  districts,  their  temper  was  irritated  by  the 
known  machinations  of  one  foreign  power  and  the  galling 
fetters  placed  upon  them  by  others,  they  hourly  expected 
Servia  to  declare  war  in  their  front,  and  they  were  assured 
that  Bulgaria  was  going  to  rebel  in  their  rear.  Financial 
shipwreck  stared  them  in  the  face,  and  the  whole  machin- 
ery of  government  was  in  wild  disorder ;  the  Bulgarian 
people  were  in  a  state  of  terror  at  the  alarming  reports 
from  the  neighboring  pi'ovince  of  Herzegovina,  and  at  the 


THE  BULGARIANS.  57 

events  which,  were  foreshadowed  in  Servia.  At  this  mo- 
ment the  match  was  put  to  the  mine  which  was  to  explode 
in  the  Bulgarian  rebellion,  and  there  was  no  Midhat  Pacha 
on  the  spot.  The  result  was  a  panic  amongst  the  Bulga- 
rians, and  a  panic  amongst  the  Ottoman  authorities.  There 
is  no  combination  of  cu-cumstances  more  favorable  for  cru- 
elty and  massacre  than  that  of  uncontrollable  terror.  A 
nation,  like  a  man,  in  a  panic  is  in  a  state  of  temporary 
insanity. 

Be  it  remembered  that  the  orders  in  1867-68,  to  the  for- 
eign agents  who  were  to  manufacture  rebellion,  were  "to 
compel  the  peaceable  Christian  peasantry  to  join  their 
ranks,  and  rise  against  their  oppressors."  The  orders  were 
the  same  in  1876 ;  and  in  abject  terror  some  few  unfortu- 
nate Bulgarians  did  join  the  ranks  of  the  many  ruffians 
that  gathered  in  the  hope  of  plunder,  and  we  know  the 
sad  result.  But  to  call  this  wicked  plot  a  Bulgarian  rebel- 
lion is  a  cruel  insult  and  reproach  to  that  i^eaceful  and 
would-be  loyal  people. 

As  an  instance  of  the  panic  which  reigned  amongst  the 
Ottoman  authorities,  I  will  cite  one  case  which  occurred. 

A  telegram  was  received  by  one  of  the  governing  pashas 
from  his  superior  to  destroy  eleven  named  villages,  which 
were  said  to  be  hot-beds  of  insurrection.  The  pasha  vvas 
about  to  carry  his  orders  into  effect,  when  some  influential 
Bulgarians  a?id  Turlcs  waited  on  him  and  represented  their 
horror  at  the  intended  cruelty,  stating  that  they  knew  the 
villages  intimately,  and  that  the  inhabitants  were  most 
peaceful,  industrious,  and  harmless,  and  did  not  harbor  a 
thought  of  rebellion.  They  begged  the  pasha  to  accompany 
them  to  the  villages,  and  satisfy  himself  of  the  accuracy  of 
their  assertion.  He  immediately  did  so,  and,  of  course, 
found  that  the  statement  was  correct.  He  telegraphed  to 
that  effect  to  his  superior,  and  received  orders  to  spare  the 
villages,  and  thus  these  poor  people  escaped.  Would  that 
it  had  been  so  in  all  cases  ! 

There  is  no  palliation  for  the  honlble  cruelties  that  were 
committed  withm  the  knowledge,  and  sometimes  even  by 


58  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

the  orders,  of  the  Ottoman  authorities ;  but  to  fasten  such 
cruelty  as  an  attribute  peculiar  to  the  Turkish  character 
is  a  wrong.  Like  barbarities  have  been  rivaled  in  former 
times  by  Christians  on  the  same  ground,  and  in  the  pres- 
ent day  by  Russians  in  Central  Asia.  The  orders  for  the 
Bulgarian  atrocities  are  merely  instances  of  the  cruel 
side  of  human  nature,  bereft  by  panic  of  its  better  half, 
mercy,  and  as  such  bear  no  comparison  with  those  of  Rus- 
sia, which  were  the  result  of  cool  and  premeditated  action. 

It  was  stated  that  many  of  the  Bulgarian  girls  were 
seized  by  the  Turks  and  forcibly  retained  in  their  harems. 
This  report  is  partly  true  and  partly  false.  Many  of  the 
girls  were  undoubtedly  taken  to  the  harems,  sometimes 
forcibly,  and  in  many  cases  out  of  charity ;  but  with  very 
few  exceptions  these  girls  refuse  to  return  to  theii*  homes. 
They  find  the  luxury  and  comfort  of  the  harem  preferable 
to  their  hard  life  in  a  Bulgarian  village. 

The  downfall  of  Sultan  Abdul  Aziz  completely  check- 
mated for  a  time  the  machinations  of  Russia,  and  in  what 
form  they  are  again  to  be  resumed  remains  to  be  seen. 

I  have  already  said  that  the  Bulgarians  are  principally 
a  rural  population,  and  they  form  the  great  bulk  of  the 
agricultural  classes  in  Turkey  in  Europe  ;  but  wherever  it 
is  practicable  they  also  turn  their  attention  to  manufac- 
tures, and  along  the  southern  slopes  of  the  Balkan  woolen 
clothes  and  carpets  are  made  in  large  quantities,  but  are 
mostly  used  in  the  country. 

It  is  difficult  to  form  an  accurate  opinion  of  the  number 
of  the  Bulgarians,  or,  indeed,  of  any  other  population  in 
Turkey,  as  the  official  statistics  are  not  to  be  depended 
upon,  and  I  am  inclined  to  think  that  the  population  is 
greatly  underestimated.  This  may  be  accounted  for  by 
the  corruption  of  Turkish  officials,  coupled  with  the  fact 
of  Christians  paying  a  tax  in  lieu  of  military  service. 
The  head  of  a  household  knows  when  the  tax-gatherer  is 
coming,  and  orders  some  of  the  males  of  his  family  to 
make  themselves  scarce.  The  tax-gatherer  enters  the 
door,  and  feels  a  backshish  slipped  into  his  hand ;  and 


THE  BULOARIANS.  59 

down  goes  the  number  of  male  occupants  as  three,  when 
it  is  in  reality  five.  They  have  another  mode  of  taking 
the  census,  which  is  by  counting  the  number  of  houses, 
and  taking  the  average  number  of  occupants  as  four  in 
each  family ;  but  this  is  evidently  a  rough-and-ready 
mode  of  proceeding  which  must  be  far  from  accurate,  and 
it  is  also  open  to  the  all-powerful  influence  of  backshish. 
I  give  in  Appendix  C  various  statistics  of  the  Turkish 
populations. 

We  have  seen  how,  by  raising  their  voice  and  not  their 
arms,  the  Bulgarians  obtained  an  independent  church  and 
national  schools,  and  that  general  progress  and  content- 
ment existed  ;  but  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  they  inherit 
the  remembrance,  even  in  the  present  generation,  of  most 
wicked  persecution  approaching  near  to  slavery,  and  the 
hardship  they  have  now  to  bear  is  not  the  persecution  of 
their  governors,  but  the  arrogance  of  their  Mohammedan 
fellow-subjects  who  live  by  their  side,  and  who,  from  being 
accustomed  to  see  the  Bulgarian  Christians  over-ridden, 
treat  them  -with  contempt,  and  as  though  they  were  an  in- 
ferior race.  To  their  former  persecution  from  the  Otto- 
man authorities  was  added  that  of  their  Greek  priesthood ; 
and  these  two  combined  have  produced  a  submission  and 
a  patience  under  suffering  which  is  both  pitiable  and  ad- 
mirable. 

Some  idea  of  what  these  poor  people  once  suffered,  and 
the  reformation  which  has  been  made  in  their  treatment 
within  the  last  few  years,  may  be  formed  by  a  description 
of  what  was  going  on  in  the  district  of  Djumaa,  on  the 
upper  Strymon,  in  the  year  1859.  This  district  contains 
thirty-two  villages,  of  which  twenty-seven  are  Bulgarian 
and  five  Mohammedan ;  most  of  the  villages  were  the 
property  of  the  Mohammedan  beys  or  aghas  (gentlemen) 
of  the  place,  the  land  being  cultivated  by  the  Bulgarians, 
partly  as  laborers  and  partly  as  rayahs,  on  the  metayer 
system.  The  district  was  governed  by  a  Mudir  (magis- 
trate), and  Medjliss  (court),  who  sat  at  the  iovro.  of 
Bjumaa. 


60  TURKEY  m  EUROPE. 

Tlie  Medjliss,  or  court,  was  composed  of  Mohammedans, 
with  one  Bulgarian  codja-bashi  (headman)  representative, 
but  the  latter  did  not  dare  to  raise  his  voice  on  any  subject. 
All  the  members  of  the  Medjliss  were  the  principal  land- 
owners in  the  district :  consequently,  in  most  of  the  ques- 
tions brought  before  the  court,  they  had  to  sit  in  judg- 
ment on  themselves. 

The  neighborhood,  being  mountainous,  was  infested  by 
brigands,  composed  of  Turks,  Albanians,  and  Christians, 
and  the  beys  who  sat  on  the  Medjliss  were  said  to  afford 
a  ready  asylum  to  these  robbers,  and  sometimes  to  share 
in  the  plunder.  Under  such  circumstances,  the  amount 
of  justice  received  by  the  Bulgarians  may  easily  be  im- 
agined. By  the  metayer  system,  the  landlord  receives  half 
the  crop  (after  many  deductions)  as  rent,  and  it  is  col- 
lected in  kind.  At  Djumaa,  the  beys  and  aghas  employed 
brigands  to  collect,  not  only  their  own  share,  but  much 
besides,  from  the  rayahs,  and  these  Albanians  in  their 
turn  plundered  the  villagers.  The  Poliak,  or  Albanian 
guard,  in  the  service  of  one  of  the  members  of  the  Medj- 
liss, was  attached  to  a  village  called  Logotash.  They 
gathered  together  seven  other  evil  spuits,  and  going  to  a 
neighboring  village,  broke  into  the  cottage  of  a  Bulgarian 
farmer,  and  demanded  plunder.  The  poor  man,  having 
nothing  to  give,  was  seized  and  held  down  while  his  body 
was  seared  with  red-hot  irons.  This,  of  course,  was  not 
an  every-day  occurrence,  and  consequently  made  some 
sensation  in  the  neighborhood ;  and  the  Turkish  Eegis- 
trar  for  Title  Deeds,  of  Sofia,  happening  to  be  at  Djumaa 
at  the  time,  heard  of  the  barbarity,  and  to  his  credit 
called  on  the  Mudir,  and  had  the  Poliak  arrested  and 
brought  before  the  Medjliss. 

At  first  the  Albanians  asserted  their  innocence,  but  the 
evidence  was  overwhelming  and  the  Registrar  firm ;  so 
they  gave  up  that  tack,  and  made  a  clean  breast  of  it,  and 
declared  that  they  acted  under  instructions  fi'om  their 
master  and  other  members  of  the  Medjliss,  or  court  which 
was  trying  them. 


THE  BULGARIANS.  61 

This  made  matters  disagreeable,  but  the  indignant  Reg- 
istrar still  pressed  the  case  to  a  higher  court.  So  off  to 
Constantinople  went  the  principal  bey,  the  master  of  the 
Poliak,  who  was  a  man  of  considerable  property,  and 
consequently  of  considerable  influence,  and  made  interest 
there  with  the  higher  powers.  The  result  was  that  an  or- 
der came  that  the  case  was  not  to  be  pressed  against  him, 
and  the  indignant  Registrar  went  on  his  way,  but  not  re- 
joicing. 

This  may  be  taken  as  a  fair  sample  of  the  customs  and 
administration  of  Justice  in  a  few  of  the  country  districts 
twenty  years  ago ;  but  a  great  change  for  the  better  has 
been  wrought  of  late  years.  I  was  at  this  very  place, 
Djumaa,  in  1874.  It  was  then  a  tolerably  clean  and  flour- 
ishing to^vn,  with  the  telegraph  and  an  excellent  high- 
way road  passing  through  it.  Brigandage  was  almost  ex- 
tinguished, and  an  advanced  system  of  agriculture  (chiefly 
tobacco)  was  practiced.  The  same  change  has  been  real- 
ized in  other  districts  throughout  the  country,  and  this,  at 
all  events,  shows  that  the  Crimean  War  was  not  fought  in 
vain,  and  that  it  has  brought  some  blessings  to  humanity. 

The  reader  will  observe  the  armor  which  has  been  given 
to  the  Bulgarian  as  a  defense  against  persecution  by  the 
revival  of  his  j^ational  Church,  which  throws  a  large 
share  of  his  local  government  into  the  hands  of  the  eccle- 
siastical superiors  of  his  own  nation,  and  at  the  same  time 
creates  a  channel  of  communication  leading  up  to  Con- 
stantinople, by  which  any  barefaced  persecution  could  be 
made  public.  But,  as  I  have  said,  the  Bulgarians  have 
still  to  bear  the  insolence  and  arrogance  of  their  Moham- 
medan neighbors,  and  submit  to  it  from  the  force  of  in- 
heritance. I  will  give  two  examples  which  I  lately  wit- 
nessed. In  the  town  of  Salonica,  in  a  grain  merchant's 
office,  a  Hellenized  Bulgarian  was  transacting  business 
with  the  merchant,  and  whilst  he  was  in  the  midst  of  con- 
versation a  Turk  entered,  sat  himseK  down,  and  at  once 
broke  up  the  conversation,  and  commenced  business  as 
though  the  Bulgarian  was  not  in  existence,  and  the  man 


62  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

was  left  there  standing  nntil  the  Turk  had  finished.  This 
arrogant  conduct  of  the  Turk  was  not  habitual :  had  the 
man  been  a  fellow-Turk,  Jiowemr  poor,  he  would  have  re- 
spectfully been  given  time  to  conclude  his  business. 

The  other  case  is  one  of  greater  hardship.  A  Bulgarian 
farmer,  in  a  village  adjoining  my  estate,  had  his  straw 
stack  burnt.  I  was  condoling  with  the  man  on  his  loss, 
when  he  told  me  that  it  was  the  act  of  an  incendiary,  and 
that  he  knew  the  culprit.  "Then,"  I  asked,  "why  do 
you  not  have  him  up  before  the  Mudir  (magistrate)  ? ' '  He 
shrugged  his  shoulders,  and  said,  "The  man  belongs  to 
the  Youruk  (Turks')  village."  "What  of  that?"  I  re- 
plied. "Have  him  up,  and  you  will  get  justice ;  and,  if 
you  like,  I  will  see  that  you  have  fair  play."  Another 
shrug  of  the  shoulders.  "No,  thank  you,  Chelibi;  I 
would  rather  not  make  enemies." 

I  could  mention  many  other  cases,  but  the  foregoing  are 
fair  samples  of  the  subordination  of  the  Christian  to  the 
Turk  in  every-day  life.  It  has  been  brought  about  by 
long  years  'of  domination  of  one  race  over  the  other  in  a 
country  not  regulated  by  a  powerful  police.  But  this  sub- 
jection is  rapidly  wearing  away,  and  the  railway  and  the 
telegraph  will  soon  equalize  the  different  races. 


CHAPTER  III. 

THE  BOSPHOEUS  AND   BLACK   SEA. 

Turkish  Red-tapeism — My  struggles  for  a  Passport — To  Burgas  by  Steamer — 
Undercurrents  of  the  Bosphorus — Possible  connection  between  it  and 
the  Caspian — The  Great  Flood — Bay  and  Town  of  Burgas. 

/~\NE  of  my  objects  in  visiting  Turkey  was  to  inspect 
^-^  some  landed  estates  reported  for  sale,  and  which, 
offered  favorable  investments  for  capital ;  and,  as  I  was 
anxious  to  see  a  large  portion  of  the  country,  in  order  to 
be  able  to  form  an  accurate  opinion  of  its  capabilities,  I 
determined  to  land  at  Burgas,  on  the  Black  Sea  coast,  and 
inspect  the  neighborhood  of  that  town,  and  afterwards  to 
pass  along  the  south  side  of  the  Balkan  mountains,  cross 
them  at  their  western  extremity  to  the  Danubian  plain, 
and  from  there  make  my  way  to  Salonica,  in  the  south. 
Before  leaving  Constantinople,  I  was  told  that  it  was  neces- 
sary to  provide  myself  with  a  "teskerre,"  or  Turkish 
passport,  to  show,  if  required,  when  traveling  through 
the  country. 

Accordingly,  I  placed  myself  under  the  direction  of 
"Far  Away  Moses,"  and  was  led  through  intricate  and 
narrow  streets  for  about  half  an  hour,  until  we  arrived  at 
an  official  Turkish  building,  where  we  were  told  that  it 
was  necessary  to  cross  to  Stamboul  to  another  office,  about 
two  miles  off.  As  it  was  an  exceedingly  hot  day  in  July, 
I  commenced  to  put  myself  in  the  fashion  by  abusing 
Turkish  administration ;  but  we  have  just  as  much  red 
tape  at  home. 

Arrived  at  the  office,  I  had  to  wait  until  another  indi- 
vidual on  the  same  errand  had  obtained  what  he  re- 
quired, and  during  this  time  I  had  the  opportunity  of 
observing  the  Turkish  manner  of  doing  business. 

63 


64  TURKEY  m  EUROPE. 

There  was  a  very  pompous  Turkish,  official  at  a  desk 
writing  and  questioning  the  intending  traveler,  and  five 
other  officials  sitting  round  and  looking  on. 

These  officers  were  mostly  young,  and  their  principal 
duties  appeared  to  consist  in  paring  their  nails  and  utter- 
ing deep  and  reflective  sighs.  "Far  Away  Moses"  in- 
formed me  that  these  gentlemen  received  salaries  at  the 
rate  of  £30  a  month,  that  I  had  witnessed  their  usual  oc- 
cupation, and  that  there  were  no  less  than  three  thou- 
sand others  in  various  offices  usefully  employed  in  a  sim- 
ilar manner. 

Look  to  it,  0  ye  bondholders  without  dividends,  for 
this  is  one  of  the  weak  and  extravagant  points  of  Turkish 
administration.  There  are  usually  three  officials  helping 
a  fourth  to  do  nothing. 

The  difficulty  at  Constantinople  is  to  obtain  accurate  in- 
formation upon  any  subject,  either  from  Turks  or  Franks. 

No  sooner  had  I  provided  myself  with  the  "  teskerre," 
than  I  M^as  told  that  a  "  booyutoo  "  was  the  proper  pass- 
port to  have,  that  it  was  a  much  grander  document,  and 
would  be  an  "open  sesame"  wherever  I  might  go  on 
Turkish  soil.  It  is  obtained  direct  from  the  Grand  Yizier, 
or  fi'om  the  Vali,  or  governor-general  of  a  district  vilaiet, 
through  the  ambassador  or  consul  representing  the  nation- 
ality of  the  traveler,  and  if  it  is  produced  to  the  magis- 
trate of  any  district  it  immediately  commands  the  greatest 
attention  and  assistance,  while  the  production  of  a  "  tes- 
kerre  "  shows  that  the  traveler  is  but  an  ordinary  individ- 
ual, not  deserving  much  consideration.  I  afterwards  pro- 
cured a  "booyutoo,"  but  I  had  to  produce  it  only  once 
throughout  the  whole  of  my  travels,  and  yet  always  met 
with  the  greatest  kindness,  civility,  and  hospitality  wher- 
ever I  went.  Curiously  enough  the  occasion  of  my  having 
to  produce  the  "booyutoo"  occurred  on  the  waters  of 
the  Bosphorus,  when  I  was  passing  from  one  steamer  to 
another  with  my  luggage  in  a  caique,  and  was  stopped  by 
one  of  the  water  custom-house  officers.  The  man  insisted 
on  examining  my  luggage,  but  I  happened  to  be  in  a  hurry 


THE  BOSPUORUS  AND  BLACK  SEA.  65 

and  a  bad  temper  at  the  time,  and  therefore  all  the  obsti- 
nacy of  the  Briton  rose  -within  me,  and  I  firmly  refused, 
knowing  that  the  demand  was  only  an  excuse  for  back- 
shish. The  man  persisted,  and  the  steam  whistle  was 
blowing  the  signal  for  a  start,  so  I  indignantly  spread  out 
my  "booyutoo"  within  an  inch  of  the  man's  nose,  and 
the  boatman  accompanied  the  tragic  act  by  a  crescendo 
expostulation.  The  effect  was  instantaneous,  and  the  man 
who  had  been  rather  impertinent  before  now  completely 
changed  his  manner,  as  he  looked  gravely  at  the  docu- 
ment, which  he  folded  uj)  carefully,  as  though  he  regard- 
ed it  with  the  deepest  resjDect,  and,  returning  it  to  me  with 
a  salute,  politely  begged  me  to  pass  on.  I  pondered  over 
the  Mohammedan  law,  which  asserts  that  all  men  are 
equal !  I  soon  found  myself  on  board  the  Austrian  Lloyd 
steamer,  Thetis,  bound  for  Galatz,  xia  Burgas  and  Yar- 
na.  It  was  perfect  pandemonium.  The  decks  were  crowd- 
ed vdth  passengers,  Turks,  Greeks,  Armenians,  Negroes, 
Circassians,  Bulgarians,  Germans,  Dutch,  French,  Italians, 
Americans,  Scotch,  and  I  and  my  servant  added  the  Eng- 
lish element.  They  were  nearly  all  talking,  shouting,  and 
gesticulating.  There  were  nearly  twenty  horses  on  board, 
neighing,  squealing,  and  kicking  ;  there  were  dogs  bark- 
ing and  whining,  the  donkey  engine  fizzed  and  rattled,  the 
captain  was  bawling  and  swearing,  the  screw  was  thump- 
ing and  bumping,  the  steam  was  roaring  and  spluttering, 
and  I  was  grumbling  and  muttering.  The  waters  of  Lo- 
dore  were  a  joke  to  the  hubbub. 

Truly  this  city  of  the  East  must  be  a  wonderful  place, 
to  attract  all  these  nations  to  a  common  center !  There 
must  have  been  a  special  Providence  over  this  steamer, 
otherwise  we  should  have  all  been  burnt,  as  the  decks 
were  piled  vdth  hay,  which  again  was  piled  with  men  who 
were  all  smoking  cigarettes.  I  called  the  attention  of  the 
captain  to  the  fact,  and  received  the  foreign  expressive 
reply  of  a  shrug  of  the  shoulders,  as  much  as  to  say, 
"Men,  like  chimneys,  are  made  to  smoke  ;"  and  so  I  tried 
to  think  it  was  quite  natural  and  pleasant,  and  went  be- 


66  TURRET  IN  EUROPE. 

low,  where  I  must  do  the  steamer  justice  by  saying  that 
everything  was  very  comfortable. 

In  steaming  along  the  Bosphorus  the  attention  is  at- 
tracted to  the  rapidity  of  the  surface  current,  which  is 
running  at  about  three  miles  an  hour  from  the  Black  Sea 
to  the  Sea  of  Marmora ;  and  on  emerging  into  the  former 
sea  we  observe  some  curious  volcanic  rocks,  which  are  the 
celebrated  Cyanean  gates.  There  is  a  connection  between 
these  rocks  and  the  strong  current ;  and  Nature  is  here 
silently  finishing  a  great  work.  This  subject  is  one  of 
such  deep  interest  that  I  shall  dwell  upon  it  for  a  time,  in 
the  hope  that  it  may  have  attractions  for  my  reader. 

Although  there  is  such  a  strong  surface  current  from 
one  sea  to  the  other  through  the  Bosphorus,  if  from  a 
small  boat  a  weighted  bucket  with  a  rope  attached  be 
sunk  to  some  depth,  it  is  found  that  there  is  such  a  power- 
ful under-current  in  the  opposite  direction  that  it  will 
actually,  by  means  of  the  sunken  bucket,  tow  the  boat 
against  the  upper  stream. 

Different  explanations  have  been  given  as  to  the  cause 
of  these  opposite  currents,  and  Maury  attributes  it  to  the 
difference  in  specific  gravity  between  the  surface  and 
under  water,  and  the  effort  of  the  two  to  find  theu'  level ; 
for  it  has  been  proved  by  experiment  that  the  water  at 
the  bottom  is  more  impregnated  with  salt,  and  therefore 
heavier  than  the  water  at  the  top. 

Another  more  probable  explanation  is  founded  on  the 
supposition  that  there  is  underground  communication  be- 
tween the  Caspian  and  the  Black  Sea  ;  and  that  the  level 
of  the  former  being  much  lower  than  that  of  the  latter,  the 
water  is  sucked  from  below  through  this  underground 
channel,  thus  creating  an  under-current  in  that  direction 
from  the  Sea  of  Marmora  through  the  Bosphorus  and 
Black  Sea  to  the  Caspian,  while  the  upper  current  flows 
by  reason  of  difference  of  level  in  the  contrary  direction, 
namely,  from  the  Black  Sea  to  the  Sea  of  Marmora. 

This  supposition  requires  that  the  level  of  the  Caspian 
should  be  lower  than  that  of  the  Black  Sea,  and  the  level 


THE  BOSPEORUS  AND  BLACK  SEA.  67 

of  the  latter  higher  than  the  Mediterranean ;  and  if  we 
assume  that  there  is  an  underground  communication  be- 
tween the  two  seas,  the  laws  of  hydraulics  would  then  be 
satisfied,  and  the  i^henomenon  would  be  explained.  Now, 
Sir  Roderick  Murchison  made  the  level  of  the  Caspian 
83 '6  feet  lower  than  the  Black  Sea,  so  that  part  of  the 
problem  is  satisfied,  and  we  know  that  the  surface  level  of 
the  Black  Sea  is  higher  than  the  MediteiTanean,  therefore 
we  only  require  to  prove  the  underground  channel.  This 
is  stated  to  exist  at  the  south-eastern  shore,  in  the  direc- 
tion of  Tiflis,  but  there  are  many  reasons  for  supposing 
that  it  may  be  by  the  Sea  of  Azof.  We  are  told  by 
ancient  writers  that  the  Black  Sea,  the  Sea  of  Azof,  and 
the  Caspian  were  originally  one,  and  that  this  great  inland 
water  was  pent  up  to  a  considerably  higher  level  than  the 
Propontis  and  Mediterranean  by  the  exceedingly  narrow 
passage  formed  by  the  Cyanean  Isles  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Bosphorus.  That  about  1530  years  before  Christ  a  vol- 
canic eruption  destroyed  the  greater  part  of  this  barrier, 
and  the  waters  thus  freed  from  confinement  rushed  into 
the  Propontis,  thence  by  the  Hellespont  to  the  Mediter- 
ranean, producing  a  great  flood,  and  deluging  the  lower 
countries  of  Asia  Minor,  Thrace,  Greece,  Egypt,  and  Libya. 
Strabo,  Zanthus,  Diodorus,  and  many  other  ancient  au- 
thors allude  to  this  great  inundation. 

The  pages  of  history,  which  are  unfolded  for  us  by  geo- 
logical research,  confirm  this  ancient  tradition  in  a  very 
remarkable  manner.  The  whole  of  the  land  lying  between 
the  Caspian  and  the  Sea  of  Azof  is  composed  of  marine 
deposit,  similar  to  that  of  the  Caspian  in  the  present  day ; 
and  there  are  marked  signs  of  sea-clifPs  where  all  is  now 
dry  land.  Again,  in  the  higher  rocks  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Bosphorus  there  are  unmistakable  signs  of  the  abrasion  of 
the  rocks  by  an  immense  torrent  of  water  flowing  from  the 
Black  Sea  through  the  Bosphorus. 

It  is  true  that  the  elevation  of  the  land  between  the  Sea 
of  Azof  and  the  Caspian  amounts  in  one  place  to  237  feet 
above  the  former ;  but  it  is  quite  possible  that  the  land  is 


68  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

being  gradually  upheaved  by  volcanic  action,  as  there  are 
mud  volcanoes  in  the  immediate  neighborliood,  and  we 
can  hardly  suj)pose  it  possible  that  the  level  of  the  Black 
Sea  before  the  great  flood  already  mentioned  rose  to  such 
an  extreme  height. 

The  mud  volcanoes  near  Yenicale,  and  the  salt  marshes 
and  lakes  in  the  isthmus  near  the  Caspian,  all  point  to  an 
underground  connection. 

The  difference  of  level  which  exists  between  the  Caspian 
and  the  Black  Sea  may  be  accounted  for  by  the  extraor- 
dinary amount  of  desiccation  which  we  know  to  be  going 
on  in  the  former  sea,  which  is  rapidly  diminishing  in  size. 
Some  idea  of  this  may  be  formed  when  we  find  that  in  the 
time  of  Herodotus,  who  personally  visited  those  districts, 
there  were  rivers  east  of  the  Bug  navigable  for  ships  for 
some  distance,  while  in  the  present  day  there  are  no  rivers 
there  at  all ! 

The  Black  Sea,  also,  is  decreasing  in  size,  for  Herodotus 
asserts  that  he  made  the  measurements  himseK,  and  gives 
the  width  from  Sindica  to  Themiscyra,  on  the  river  Ther- 
modon,  as  3,300  stades,  and  the  length  from  the  mouth  of 
the  Phasis  to  the  Bosphorus,  11,100  stades.  ProcoiDius 
makes  the  length  a  little  longer  than  Herodotus,  and  both 
accounts  exceed  by  more  than  a  third  the  length  of  the 
sea  in  the  present  day  ;  but  when  the  physical  character 
of  the  country  which  borders  the  Black  Sea  is  examined, 
it  is  difficult  to  acknowledge  the  accuracy  of  these  meas- 
urements. At  the  same  time,  they  point  to  the  fact  that 
a  great  reduction  of  the  area  of  water  has  taken  place. 

Now,  what  do  we  learn  from  all  these  geological  and 
historical  facts  ? 

That  there  was  originally  a  great  inland  sea,  pent  in  by 
the  Cyanean  gates,  and  that  by  some  great  volcanic  erup- 
tion those  obstructing  rocks  were  suddenly  removed,  and 
thus  allowed  the  great  expanse  of  water  to  rush  violently 
through  the  BosjDhorus  to  find  their  level  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean, and  to  flood  the  countiies  even  unto  Egypt  and 
Libya.    That  as  the  level  of  the  water  feU,  land  appeared 


THE  BOSPHOR US  AND  BLACK  SEA.  69 

where  before  all  was  sea,  and  the  isthmus  between  the 
Caspian  and  the  Sea  of  Azof  was  formed. 

Desiccation  by  evaporation  was  now  so  great  that  it  far 
exceeded  the  supply  of  water  by  rivers  to  the  Caspian, 
and  there  was  and  is  reactionary  reduction  here,  since 
rivers  are  only  formed  by  the  evaporation  of  water  from 
neighboring  seas,  so  that  as  this  great  inland  sea  ran  out 
by  the  Bosphorus,  so  in  like  proportion  did  the  rivers  run 
dry.  It  is  therefore  certain  that  in  some  far  distant  future, 
according  to  our  estimate  of  time,  the  plow  ^vill  be  turn- 
ing up  the  rich  soil,  and  there  will  be  golden  fields  of 
wheat  on  the  land  which  now  lies  at  the  bottom  of  the 
Caspian. 

Ten  hours  after  we  had  passed  the  Cyanean  gates  we 
were  steaming  into  the  large  Bay  of  Burgas,  formed  by 
Cape  Emineh  on  the  north,  where  the  ancient  Hsemus,  or 
modern  Balkan,  dips  into  the  sea,  and  on  the  south  by 
the  promontory  which  is  terminated  by  the  Greek  town  of 
Sisopolis. 

The  Bay  of  Burgas  offers  the  only  good  harbor  between 
the  Bosphorus  and  the  Danube ;  and  for  this,  as  well  as 
for  strategical  and  commercial  reasons,  it  is  a  place  of 
great  imi)ortance.  On  the  northern  side  of  the  bay  are 
the  two  ancient  Greek  towns  of  Anchialus  and  Mesembria ; 
and  the  latter  would  well  repay  a  visit  from  an  arclijeolo- 
gist.  It  was  a  colony  of  the  Megarians,  and  its  original 
name  was  Melsembria,  from  its  founder  Melsas — the  termi- 
nation hria  being  supposed  to  have  been  the  Thracian 
word  for  town.  It  was  to  this  place  that  the  lonians  fled 
from  Byzantium  after  the  suppression  of  their  revolt, 
B.C.  493. 

I  saw  some  very  beautiful  and  perfect  specimens  of 
Byzantine  architecture  in  the  town  in  the  form  of  ruins  of 
ancient  churches,  said  to  have  been  erected  by  nobles  who 
were  banished  to  this  spot  during  the  Byzantine  empire. 
They  are  built  of  small  red  bricks,  which  are  here  and 
there  studded  Avith  small  concave,  colored,  and  glazed 
tiles,  which  are  still  in  a  most  perfect  state  of  preservation. 


70  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

The  buildings  are  all  dome-sliaped.  The  town  is  essen- 
tially Greek  in  the  present  day ;  and  it  is  highly  prob- 
able that  many  of  the  inhabitants  are  the  descendants  of 
the  ancient  lonians  who  migrated  there  more  than  two 
thousand  three  hundred  years  ago. 

There  are  many  Greek  towns  scattered  along  this  coast, 
and  amongst  them  are  the  live  cities  which  formed  the 
Greek  Pentapolis,  namely,  Istriani  (Kustendje),  Tomi 
(Mangalia),  Odessus  (Varna),  Mesembria,  and  Apollonia 
(Sisopolis).  Being  seaport  towns,  it  is  not  probable  that 
the  ancient  Greek  blood  has  been  handed  down  with  much 
purity  ;  but  that  it  is  present  there  can  be  little  doubt. 

As  we  are  now  amongst  Greeks,  I  will  take  the  oppor- 
tunity of  giving  a  brief  sketch  of  the  Greek  subjects  of 
Turkey  in  Europe. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

OTTOMAN-GKEEK   SUBJECTS. 

Ottoman -Greek  subjects — Their  first  Entrance  into  the  Country — Emigration 
of  Ancient  Greeks — The  Greek  and  Russian  Churches — Pan-Hellenism — 
Town  of  Sisopolis — Greeks  on  the  Black  Sea  coast — Their  primitive  cus- 
toms— Bitter  feeling  against  the  Turk — Massacre  at  Niausta — Greek 
Brigandage. 

ALTHOUGH  the  Greeks,  both  in  ancient  and  modem 
times,  have  been  connected  with  the  Government  of 
Turkey  in  Europe  in  many  important  particulars,  they 
have  not  had  much  influence  in  the  diffusion  of  their  blood 
amongst  the  population.  Excepting  in  Thessaly  and 
Epirus,  and  in  Salonica,  and  some  of  the  large  towns,  the 
bulk  of  the  population  is  Bulgarian,  grafted  upon  the 
Thracian  and  probably  Slavonic  stock.  The  Bulgarian 
occupation  of  the  country  was  that  of  emigration,  sword 
in  hand,  and  the  families  followed  in  the  wake  of  con- 
quest, and  i)eopled  the  land.  The  Greek  and  also  the 
Ottoman  occupation  was  that  of  conquest  alone,  and  the 
small  emigTation  of  these  races  which  followed  was  only 
the  result  of  commercial  enterprise.  Hence  we  find  that 
the  real  Greek  and  Ottoman  population  of  Turkey  in 
Europe  in  the  present  day  are  but  insignificant  as  com- 
pared with  the  Bulgarians.  Many  of  the  published  sta- 
tistics would  lead  to  a  contrary  conclusion,  as  we  fre- 
quently see  the  Greek  population  put  down  at  a  figure  of 
millions  ;  but  this  arose  from  the  fact  of  the  Bulgarians 
being  dominated  by  the  Greek  Church  of  Constantinople, 
and,  therefore,  from  political  as  well  as  for  Church  pur- 
poses, they  were  designated  as  Greeks. 
Ubicini  gives  the  number  of  Greeks  in  the  Turkish  Em- 

71 


72  TURKEY  m  EUROPE. 

pii'e  as  two  millions,  of  which,  lie  says,  less  than  half  are 
in  Europe.  Excluding  Thessaly,  and  Epirus,  and  the 
Islands,  I  believe  the  number  in  Turkey  in  Europe  would 
not  exceed  500,000  ;  and  these  are  iwincipally  found  in  Con- 
stantinople, and  among  the  towns  on  the  sea-coast,  and 
the  largest  towns  in  the  interior.  The  common  term  for  a 
Greek  amongst  the  natives  is  "Roum,"  Roman.  There 
is  probably  more  ancient  Greek  blood  to  be  found  in 
Turkey  than  in  modern  Greece.  The  early  Greeks  settled 
in  Asia  Minor,  have  remained  there  to  the  present  day, 
and  the  Phanariotes  can  date  their  occupation  of  the  soil 
from  the  earliest  history  of  Byzantium. 

The  country  has  been  so  oveiTun  with  Persians,  Goths, 
Huns,  Bulgarians,  Venetians,  and  Turks,  that  the  purity 
of  blood  of  any  nation  inhabiting  the  to^vns  on  the  sea- 
coast  must  be  much  diluted.  Whether  the  ancient  Greeks 
were  of  Slavonian,  Italian,  or  Egyptian  blood,  cannot  be 
proved ;  but  Latham  seems  to  arrive  at  the  conclusion 
that  they  were  a  mixture  of  the  three.  So  that  if  the  an- 
cient Thracians  were  of  Slavonian  origin,  as  is  suggested, 
the  Greek  settlers  might  have  been  hailed  by  them  as 
cousins  of  some  indefinite  degree.  The  frequent  occur- 
rence of  the  name  Heraclea  (corrupted  into  Ereklia, 
Arakli),  which  still  clings  to  many  towns  both  in  Turkey 
in  Asia  and  Turkey  in  Europe,  testifies  to  the  antiquity  of 
the  Greek  inhabitants,  for  it  was  the  custom  of  both  the 
Bulgarian  and  Turkish  invaders  to  give  new  names  to  their 
new  settlements ;  but,  as  the  country  was  successively 
overrun,  the  inhabitants  of  the  same  nationality  kept 
grouping  themselves  into  separate  towns  and  villages,  in 
order  to  enjoy  their  habitual  social  customs,  and  they 
have,  in  many  instances,  probably  remained  on  the  same 
ground  to  the  present  day.  Some  of  the  villages  in 
Turkey,  especially  amongst  the  mountains,  may,  therefore, 
be  of  great  antiquity,  and  it  might  throw  much  light  upon 
the  ancient  history  of  the  country  if  the  ethnologist  and 
j)hilologist  would  study  the  villages  in  the  interior.  The 
time  will  soon  be  past  for  doing  so  with  profit,  as  railways 


OTTOMAN  GREEKS.  73 

are  pushing  their  way  into  the  land,  and  when  once  com- 
munication is  made  easy  the  traces  of  antiquity  will  begin 
to  diminish.  By  pitching  his  tent  on  the  mountains  dur- 
ing the  summer,  and  in  the  plains  during  the  winter,  the 
ethnologist  might  enjoy  one  of  the  healthiest  climates  in 
the  world,  and  he  would  meet  with  the  greatest  hospitality 
and  civility. 

As  far  as  we  can  jiidge,  the  ancient  and  modern  Greeks 
of  Turkey  show  similarity  of  character  in  their  pursuits, 
which,  when  not  diverted  by  war,  were  commercial.  They 
do  not  appear  to  have  spread  over  Turkey  in  Europe  and 
peopled  it,  but  rather  to  have  been  attracted  to  the  points 
which  offered  the  greatest  facilities  for  commerce,  and 
there  remained  to  carry  on  their  trade  with  the  people  of 
the  country.  Grote  tells  us  that  it  was  the  policy  of  the 
Persians  to  give  as  far  as  possible  autonomy  to  all  the 
Greek  towns  of  Thrace,  both  small  and  great,  and  the  ad- 
vantage of  this  policy  was  recognized  by  their  predeces- 
sors as  well  as  by  their  successors. 

The  excess  of  individuality  in  the  Greek  character  was 
evidently  well  understood,  and  it  was  discerned  that  if 
each  town  were  left  to  govern  itself  there  would  be  less 
chance  of  united  action  from  the  whole  body.  In  after 
years,  under  Ottoman  rule,  the  Greeks  recognized  their 
weakness,  and  endeavored  to  strengthen  their  position  by 
Hellenizing  (if  I  may  so  use  the  word)  the  Bulgarian 
population  of  Turkey  from  the  source  of  the  Greek 
Church. 

The  experiment  had  a  fair  trial,  but  Bulgarian  nation- 
ality was  too  strong  to  be  smothered,  and  it  burst  the 
bonds  of  ecclesiastical  subjection.  The  strength  of  this 
nationality  becomes  the  more  conspicuous,  because  the 
rites  and  doctrines  of  both  churches  are  so  similar  that 
there  is  practically  little  difference  between  the  two,  so 
that  in  overlaying  the  Bulgarians  with  the  Greek  Church 
there  were  no  religious  prejudices  to  overcome. 

Again,  it  might  be  thought  that  success  would  be  in- 
sured, since  at  the  time  of  the  trial  the  only  education 


74  TURRET  m  EUROPE. 

given  to  tlie  peasant  classes  was  through  the  priesthood, 
and  care  was  taken  that  these  should  all  be  Greeks. 

But  it  was  of  no  use ;  the  experiment  was  a  complete 
failui-e,  although  it  had  a  trial  of  a  hundi-ed  years,  and  at 
the  end  of  that  time  the  Bulgarian  crowed  out  his  strong 
nationality  at  the  da^\Ti  of  his  revived  Church. 

The  failure  may  be  attributed  to  two  causes,  each  of 
which  reacted  upon  the  other,  viz.,  the  love  of  the  Bul- 
garian for  his  mother-tongue,  and  the  neglect  of  the 
Greeks  to  oust  it — not  by  force,  but  by  adequate  Greek 
elementary  educational  establishments. 

The  failure  has  added  much  to  the  complexity  of  gov- 
ernment in  Turkey,  as  the  antipathy  between  the  two 
races  is  now  intense,  and  forms  a  species  of  yeast  to  keep 
up  the  fermentation  amongst  the  peoples  of  that  unhappy 
country. 

Looking  then  at  the  Greek  presence  in  Turkey,  we  find 
that  their  first  entry  dates  from  the  mythical  ^olian,  Do- 
rian, and  Ionian  emigrations  to  Asia  Minor,  from  whence 
they  passed  over  to  the  coast  of  Thrace,  and  established 
themselves  in  the  seaport  towns,  probably  for  the  purposes 
of  trade,  but  they  still  looked  to  their  mother-country  as 
their  head.  Under  them  Byzantium  grew  in  importance 
and  power,  until  through  it  the  greater  part  of  Thrace  was 
ruled  by  a  military  despotism. 

In  B.C.  168,  when  Perseus,  the  last  King  of  Macedonia, 
was  defeated  by  ^milius  Paulus,  the  Roman  arms  began 
to  overshadow  Greece,  and  twenty-two  years  after,  it  be- 
came a  Roman  province,  but  Greek  trade  still  flourished 
at  Byzantium  and  on  the  coast.  When  the  Roman  Empe- 
ror Constantine  transferred  the  seat  of  government  to  By- 
zantium, and  gave  it  his  name,  Greece  commenced  a  new 
reign  under  the  changed  title  of  the  Byzantine  Empire, 
and  in  course  of  time  Greeks  became  Roman  emperors. 

The  Byzantine  Empire  over  what  we  now  call  Turkey 
in  Europe  was  but  a  military  despotism  over  a  subjugated 
people,  and  the  Greeks  did  not  populate  any  material 
portion  of  the  country.    After  the  conquest  of  the  coun- 


OTTOMAN  GliEEES.  75 

try  by  tlie  Turks,  altliougli  the  maclimery  of  government 
was  of  TurkisL.  workmansliip,  it  liad  to  be  set  in  motion  by 
Greek  engineers.  The  Ottomans  found  themselves  mas- 
ters of  a  population  which  did  not  understand  then*  lan- 
guage, and  they  had  to  make  the  Greeks  their  medium  of 
communication  with  theu"  new  subjects.  This  necessarily 
brought  the  Greeks  into  close  contact  with  the  governing 
power,  and  they  made  such  good  use  of  the  opportunity 
that  the  influence  of  the  Phanar  became  proverbial.  The 
dying  words  of  Sultan  Othman  recommended  religious 
toleration  over  his  new  conquests,  and  the  respect  which 
was  paid  to  his  injunctions  gave  a  power  to  the  Greek 
Patriarchs  which  was  hardly  less  than  that  of  the  Sheiks 
ul  Islam. 

The  Ottomans,  not  knowing  how  to  communicate  ^^4th 
their  subjects,  took  advantage  of  the  ecclesiastical  organi- 
zation of  the  Greek  Church,  and  placed  a  large  share  of 
the  civil  power  into  its  hands,  and  thus  the  minority 
ruled  the  majority  of  the  Christian  subjects.  But  the 
power  of  the  Greek  Church  was  not  supported  by  Otto- 
man subjects  only  ;  it  ranged  over  an  immense  area  in 
Russia ;  and  this  connection  with  the  arch-enemy  of  the 
Turks  made  it  a  very  dangerous,  and,  it  may  possibly 
prove,  fatal  element  in  Ottoman  government.  The  origin 
of  the  Oriental  or  Orthodox  Church  of  the  East  is  un- 
certain. The  Greeks  claim  that  it  was  founded  by  the 
apostle  St.  Andrew.  It  is  certain  that  there  were  Chris- 
tians in  Byzantium  in  the  time  of  Severus.  It  was,  and  is, 
governed  by  four  Patriarchs,  at  Constantinople,  Antioch, 
Alexandria,  and  Jerusalem. 

The  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  was  originally  at  the 
head  of  the  whole  of  the  Russian  Church ;  but  toward 
the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century  a  fifth  Patriarch  was 
appointed  at  Moscow.  This  office  was  suppressed  by 
Peter  the  Great,  and  since  his  reign  the  Russian  Church 
has  been  governed  by  a  synod  of  her  own  bishops.  The 
Church  of  Servia  also  seceded  from  the  see  of  Constanti- 
nople, and  lately  (1872)  that  of  Bulgaria,  so  that  its  power 


76  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

is  gradually  being  curtailed.  The  points  of  difference  be- 
tween the  Greek  and  the  Roman  Churches  consist  princi- 
pally in  the  former  refusing  to  acknowledge  the  supremacy 
of  the  latter ;  but  they  also  differ  on  the  doctrine  of  pur- 
gatory, and  the  Nicene  Creed,  and  in  the  celibacy  of  the 
clergy.  Tlie  Greek  priests  who  are  met  with  in  the  coun- 
try districts  of  Turkey  are,  generally  speaking,  but  partial- 
ly educated  men,  who  live  by  exactions  from  their  flock. 
Their  power  over  the  people  in  Macedonia  is  far  less  than 
in  Bulgaria  and  Roumelia.  Many  religious  observances 
are  commanded,  but  they  are  too  often  accompanied  by  a 
heavy  charge ;  and  the  poor  peasant  is  mulcted  of  what 
little  is  left  him  after  deductions  for  taxes,  and  the  result 
of  his  careless  cultivation. 

So  long  as  Greece  proper  formed  part  of  the  Turkish 
EmiDu-e,  the  Greeks  exercised  a  very  powerful  influence 
on  the  Porte ;  but  since  1829  the  great  bulk  of  the  Greek 
population  has  been  cut  adrift  from  Turkey,  and  with  it 
the  influence  it  formerly  possessed. 

The  dream  of  Greek  ambition  is  the  re-establishment  of 
the  Byzantine  Empire,  and  had  she  dealt  in  a  more  liberal 
spirit  when  she  possessed  the  ecclesiastical  government  of 
the  Bulgarian  people,  she  might  by  this  time  have  so 
Hellenized  them  as  to  make  such  a  dream  possible  of  re- 
alization. As  it  is,  a  bitter  enmity  has  been  established 
with  the  bulk  of  the  very  people  the  new  Byzantine  Em- 
pire would  have  to  govern ;  and  any  attempt  to  establish 
such  a  rule  would  raise  a  storm  of  indignation.  Besides 
this,  it  would  be  opposed  to  the  Pan- Slavonic  scheme,  and 
thus  raise  such  a  host  of  enemies  in  the  north  and  east  as 
to  comj)letely  crush  the  feeble  power  of  the  Pan-Hellenic 
rival. 

The  religious  toleration  of  Mohammedan  Turkey  would 
hardly  be  copied  by  Christian  Greece,  and  Greek  rule  at 
Constantinople  would  mean  a  Greek  Church  for  the  Bul- 
garians, and  the  last  state  of  discord  would  be  worse 
than  the  first,  judging  by  the  bitterness  which  is  now 
rampant. 


OTTOMAN  GREEKS.  77 

There  is  a  vulgar  saying  that  in  either  a  bargain  or  in- 
trigue one  Armenian  can  outwit  two  Jews,  and  one  Greek 
two  Armenians,  and  the  unenviable  talent  of  the  Greek  is 
left  to  the  imagination. 

My  own  experience  of  the  Greeks  in  Turkey  is  that  they 
are  a  most  industrious,  energetic,  and  hospitable  race,  and 
just  as  truthful  as  other  Christians  in  that  country.  They 
are  now  suffering  from  an  epidemic  of  education,  and  if 
they  are  not  careful,  too  much  learning  will  make  them 
mad.  If  a  respectable  country  farmer  has  a  son,  he  is  not 
brought  up  to  look  after  his  business,  but  is  packed  off  to 
Athens  to  be  educated  out  of  it.  He  is  naturally  clever 
(all  Greeks  are),  and  takes  a  fair  degree  at  the  university, 
and  then  aims  at  being  either  a  doctor,  a  lawyer,  or  poli- 
tician. Now  the  demand  for  doctors  and  lawyers  is  lim- 
ited, that  for  politicians  is  not ;  so  the  consequence  is  that 
Athens  is  flooded  with  a  set  of  young  aspu-ants,  each  of 
whom  thinks  he  is  destined  to  be  prime  minister,  and  to 
reestablish  the  Byzantine  Empire.  This  would  be  a  laud- 
able ambition,  and  do  no  harm,  if  it  were  not  for  the  ex- 
traordinary amount  of  energy  in  the  Greek  character. 
Each  young  aspirant  immediately  sets  vigorously  to  work 
to  satisfy  his  ambition ;  but  unfortunately  each  wishes  to 
do  it  precisely  in  his  own  way,  and  no  other.  The  conse- 
quence is  that  there  are  almost  as  many  political  parties 
in  the  state  as  there  are  politicians,  and  the  work  of  an 
energetic  government  is  hampered  as  much  as  it  can  pos- 
sibly be.  By  and  by  the  peasant  farmer  will  die,  and  the 
country  farm  will  be  uncultivated  and  unproductive,  while 
the  son  is  making  speeches  and  losing  money. 

There  is  a  marked  difference  between  the  Greek  settlers 
in  the  towns  of  the  Black  Sea  coast  and  those  of  the  Ma- 
cedonian frontier,  not  so  much  in  physical  characteristics 
as  in  their  customs  and  social  ways.  The  former  are  more. 
Oriental  than  the  latter,  and  not  so  advanced  in  what  we 
generally  understand  by  the  term  civilization.  This  might 
be  seized  upon  as  a  strong  argument  that  the  cause  of  this 
effect  is  the  pernicious  rule  of  the  Ottoman,  which  has 


78  TURKEY  m  EUROPE. 

more  infliience  on  the  Greek  race  bordering  tlie  Black 
Sea  than  on  the  same  race  in  contact  with  its  independ- 
ent and  mother-country.  But  unfortunately  for  this 
specious  argument,  it  is  upset— like  many  other  hasty 
conclusions  in  Turkey— and  its  converse  is  found  by  a 
journey  of  a  few  miles  into  the  interior,  where  another 
race,  the  Bulgarian,  is  met,  which  is  far  more  advanced 
in  civilization  than  the  same  people  on  the  Macedonian 
frontier. 

The  Greeks  on  the  Black  Sea  coast  are  certainly  the 
most  dirty  people  it  has  ever  been  my  fortune  to  meet, 
and  the  town  of  Sisopolis,  at  the  entrance  of  the  Bay  of 
Burgas,  stands  out  pre-eminent  in  that  respect.  It  must 
be  by  nature  an  extremely  healthy  place,  otherwise  some 
fearful  epidemic  would  break  out,  if  there  is  any  truth  in 
sanitary  laws.  If  any  of  my  readers  think  of  visiting  it, 
I  should  advise  them  to  construct  some  sort  of  "patent 
waterproof  anti-sewage  umbrella,"  with  a  receptacle  for 
eau  de  Cologne  in  the  handle — for  the  streets  are  so  nar- 
row that  the  houses  nearly  meet  across  them,  and  all  the 
sewage  and  ordure  falls  into  the  streets  from  the  iDroject- 
ing  first  floors.  I  had  so  many  narrow  escapes  from  these 
sewage  shower-baths,  that  out  of  respect  to  my  nervous 
system  I  left  the  town.  The  people  seem  to  live  well,  for 
in  front  of  about  every  third  or  fourth  house  a  sheep  was 
being  slaughtered ;  but  this  does  not  add  to  the  cleanliness 
of  the  town,  for  all  the  blood  and  refuse  is  left  to  pollute 
pollution. 

I  have  seen  much  of  the  Greeks  in  Turkey  since  that 
time,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  they  are  content  to  live 
in  an  absence  of  not  only  luxury,  but  ordinary  comfort, 
which  is  astonishing,  and  would  be  laudable  if  it  were 
accompanied  by  cleanliness. 

There  is  no  want  of  ventilation  in  their  houses,  for  the 
wind  moans  and  whistles  through  them  in  a  melancholy 
chorus.  But  cold  and  wet  as  are  the  winters,  the  Greek 
will  come  into  his  house  and  complacently  sit  down  in  his 
wet  clothes,  in  a  thorough  draught,  until  he  dries,  and 


OTTOMAN  GREEKS.  79 

the  aggravating  part  of  it  is  that  lie  is  not  aware  that  he 
is  doing  anything  which  is  uncomfortable. 

If  there  is  a  visitor  present  he  honors  his  guest  with  a 
"mangal,"  a  dreadful  contrivance  for  poisoning  the  air  of 
a  room  with  carbonic  acid  gas,  produced  by  a  quantity 
of  red-hot  charcoal  in  a  brazier  i^laced  in  the  middle  of 
the  room.  The  furniture  is  generally  conspicuous  by  its 
absence,  and  usually  consists  of  only  a  divan,  covered,  as 
well  as  the  floor,  \vith  a  pretty  carpet.  ^Ylien  it  is  time 
for  bed,  a  quilt  and  a  pillow  are  brought  in  for  each  visit- 
or, and  the  company  rolls  itself  up  to  snore  under  an  alle- 
gro agitato  accompaniment  of  B  flats  and  F  sharps.  The 
ablutions  in  the  morning  are  performed  in  the  veranda, 
where  may  be  espied  a  small  brass  basin  on  a  wooden  sink 
projecting  over  the  street.  The  basin  is  covered  with  a 
brass  network,  culminating  in  the  center  with  a  receptacle 
for  a  pretty,  medieval-looking  brass  coffee-pot,  with  a  very 
small  spout,  and  capable  of  holding  as  near  as  possible 
an  imperial  quart  of  water.  The  inexperienced  traveler, 
having  unrolled  himself  from  his  lively  quilt,  hovers  about 
the  medieval  brass  vessel  and  thinks  of  coffee,  and  with 
hopeful  hesitation  places  his  hand  on  it  to  see  if  it  is  hot ; 
but  his  hopes  are  doomed  to  disappointment,  for  one  of 
the  ladies  of  the  house  now  appears  with  a  small  piece  of 
soap  in  her  left  hand,  and  a  towel  over  her  arm.  She 
aj)proaches,  seizes  the  coffee-pot  with  her  right  hand,  and 
looks  kindly  and  invitingly  at  the  visitor.  He  is  now 
initiated  into  the  art  of  producing  a  cheerful  countenance 
from  small  resources.  He  is  supposed  to  hold  out  his  two 
hands  together,  while  the  lady  pours  water  into  them  out  of 
what  I  call  the  coffee-pot.  If  he  is  clever  he  may  save  a 
few  drops  from  running  through  his  fingers,  and  these  he 
rubs  quickly  over  his  face  ;  it  is  cool  and  refreshing,  and 
he  longs  for  more,  but  the  water  is  running  short.  He  is 
then  handed  the  piece  of  soap,  with  which  he  lathers  his 
hands,  the  remainder  of  the  quart  of  water  is  poured  over 
them,  and  he  then  has  to  make  believe  that  he  has  had  his 
bath.    The  Greeks  will  make  the  quart  of  water  do  for 


80  TURKEY  m  EUROPE. 

two  people,  but  I  was  wasteful,  and  used  it  all.  After 
this,  Turkish  coffee  is  brought  in  little  cups  which  hold 
about  a  tea-spoonful  of  grounds  and  a  tea-spoonful  of 
coffee,  and  about  four  hours  afterward,  brealdast  is 
served,  which  consists  of  soup  and  two  or  three  made 
dishes,  which  would  not  be  bad  if  they  were  warm,  but 
they  are  usually  half  cold.  Notwithstanding  all  this,  the 
good  humor,  anxiety  to  please,  and  hospitality  of  the 
Greek  host  are  so  genuine  that  you  leave  with  a  feeling  of 
gratitude,  accompanied  by  sorrow  that  you  cannot  teach 
him  how  to  be  comfortable.  An  after-thought,  however, 
springs  up,  that  if  the  Greek  is  happy  and  contented  with 
so  little,  why  should  he  be  taught  to  wish  for  more  ?  In 
the  great  towns,  such  as  Constantinople,  etc.,  the  wealthy 
Greeks,  of  course,  live  like  other  Europeans ;  but  in  the 
country  towns,  very  well-to-do  people  live  in  the  manner 
I  have  described. 

The  fault  of  the  Greek  character  is  love  of  intrigue,  and 
a  deficiency  in  the  power  of  making  individual  interests 
subservient  to  the  interests  of  the  State.  But  it  cannot  be 
denied  that  very  great  progress  has  been  made  by  Greece 
since  her  escape  from  Ottoman  rule — far  greater,  in  fact, 
than  would  have  been  the  case  had  she  remained  under  it. 
The  cause  of  this  is  not  far  to  seek :  unity  of  religion,  and 
unity  of  social  habits  amongst  the  subjects,  make  them 
more  easy  to  govern  than  if  they  were  of  opposite  religions, 
and  under  the  influence  of  fanatical  hatred.  Moreover,  in 
Greece  there  is  no  inquisition  of  foreign  intrigue  to  foster 
insurrection  and  thwart  every  attempt  at  reform,  such  as 
exists  in  Turkey ;  and  last,  not  least,  there  are  more  able 
and  educated  men  to  meet  the  wants  of  the  government. 

The  Greeks  complain  that  the  area  of  their  country  is 
too  small  to  develop  the  great  administrative  talents  which 
they  possess ;  but  I  much  doubt  whether,  if  it  were  ex- 
tended to  a  Byzantine  Empu'e,  their  habits  of  intrigue 
would  not  create  divisions  which  would  break  it  up  into 
small  and  independent  states.  One  thing  they  have  learned 
of  late  years  which  will  tell  to  their  advantage,  and  that 


OTTOMAN  GREEKS.  81 

is,  that  Uussia  lias  liitherfco  made  use  of  Greece  simply  for 
Iter  own  purposes,  and  that  Pan-Slavonic  and  Pan-Helle- 
nic schemes  are  forces  acting  upon  the  sam3  line,  but  in 
opposite  directions.  Amidst  the  late  disturbances  under 
which  Turkey  has  been  laboring,  Greece  has  shown  one 
encouraging  symptom  of  power,  and  that  is  self-control. 
This  proves  that  the  government  has  a  hold  over  the  pas- 
sions of  the  people,  and  is  also  alive  to  the  real  interests 
of  the  country.  A  rising  of  Greek- Ottoman  subjects,  sup- 
ported by  an  attack  from  Greece  proper,  would  certainly 
prove  a  painful  thorn  in  the  side  of  Turkey  at  the  j)resent 
moment  (January,  1877) ;  but,  cut  bono,  it  could  only 
end  in  promoting  the  views  of  Kussia  at  the  expense  of 
Greece.  Greek  lives  and  Greek  money  would  have  to  sup- 
port the  rebellion,  commerce  would  be  obstructed,  massa- 
cres would  excite  the  interference  of  foreign  powers,  and 
Greece  would  be  reduced  to  her  foimer  limits — a  poorer 
and  a  Aviser  State. 

In  traveling  along  the  Macedonian  frontier,  it  is  painful 
and  melancholy,  but  not  unnatural,  to  find  the  bitter  feel- 
ing which  has  been  left  amongst  the  Greek-Ottoman  sub- 
jects by  the  horrors  produced  by  retaliation  during  the  war 
of  independence. 

The  to^vn  of  Niausta — ^in  a  lovely  situation  about  2,000 
feet  up  i\Iount  Bernius,  and  overlooking  the  whole  of  the 
Macedonian  plain  and  the  sea  beyond — suffered  more  than 
any  other  in  this  way.  I  was  there  last  year,  and  was  led 
by  an  old  man  to  a  beautiful  gTeen  sward  in  a  grove  of 
walnut-trees  just  above  a  precipitous  rock,  over  which  fell 
a  clear  stream  in  successive  cascades  for  about  1,000  feet, 
until  it  reached  the  wide  plain  below.  Mountains  and 
woods  rose  at  the  back,  and  I  was  basking  in  the  beauties 
of  Nature,  when  I  was  aroused  by  details  of  the  hideous 
conduct  of  man.  "It  was  here,"  the  old  man  said,  "that 
when  a  boy  I  saw  all  the  male  population  of  Niausta 
brought  to  execution.  The  Turkish  officials  stood  here, 
the  executioner  there.  One  by  one  the  Christian  Greeks 
were  led  out.  The  question  was  put  to  them,  '  Giaour, 
6 


82  TURKEY  US'  EUROPE. 

wilt  tlion  save  tliy  soul  by  following  God  and  the  prophet  ? ' 
The  answer  was  '  No,  Eff endim  ; '  and  the  executioner  did 
his  work.  But  there  was  one  young  man,  so  grand,  so 
noble,  so  handsome,  that  they  paused,  then  reluctantly 
put  the  fatal  question,  and  he  fii-mly  answered  '  IvTo.'  '  Go 
back,  Giaour,  and  think  over  your  refusal  for  an  hour.' 
Again  he  was  brought  forth,  and  again  the  same  answer. 
Still  loth  to  take  so  fine  a  life,  they  offered  him  a  third 
and  last  chance  for  repentance.  'What  now,  young 
Giaour,  wilt  thou  accept  the  terms  and  live?'  'By 
God's  help,  never,'  he  replied,  and  boldly  met  his  fate." 

Truly  these  were  Christian  martyrs,  and  their  race 
should  be  capable  of  great  deeds. 

The  demoralizing  effects  of  such  horrors  are  not  confined 
to  the  moment,  but  leave  their  track  behind.  This  I 
witnessed  on  visiting  the  house  of  a  Greek  shortly  after 
this  old  man's  recital.  A  pretty  child  came  into  the  room, 
a  boy  of  about  five  years  of  age,  and  upon  my  taking  him 
on  my  knee,  and  making  the  usual  remark  that  he  was  a 
fine  boy  for  his  age,  the  father  said,  "  Georgy,  tell  the  gen- 
tleman how  many  Turks  yon  will  kill  when  you  are  a 
man,"     There  was  much  behind  that  question  ! 

In  the  small  Greek  towns  on  the  Black  Sea  coast  very 
little  complaint  is  heard  of  Turkish  misgovemment,  but 
on  the  jNIacedonian  frontier  it  is  the  chief  topic  of  conver- 
sation. The  Greeks  take  more  kindly  to  brigandage  than 
any  other  of  the  Ottoman  subjects,  Circassians  excepted, 
and  most  of  the  bands  which  used  to  infest  the  mountains 
which  divide  Thessaly  from  Macedonia  were  composed  of 
scoundrels  from  that  nation.  Mehemet  Ali  Pacha  (by 
birth  a  German),  by  his  energy  and  perseverance,  dispersed 
the  whole  of  these  bands  when  in  command  of  the  district, 
three  years  ago  ;  but  since  the  anarchy  produced  by  the 
late  rebellions,  he  has  been  called  to  the  seat  of  war,  and 
brigandage  has  again  appeared.  Here  again  is  another 
instance  of  the  difficulty  under  which  Turkey  labors,  of 
not  being  allowed  time  to  set  her  house  in  order. 


CHAPTER  y. 
"en  voyage." 

An  EnglisTi  Yice-Consul— Torture  I— Scenery  of  the  Black  Sea  Coast — 
Djeverli — The  Bulgarian  Peasants— Interior  of  their  Houses— Their 
Habits  and  Customs — Bulgarian  Dances — Bagpipes — A  Funeral — A 
Dinner-party— The  Pole  Listopat — Good  dog,  good  dog  ! — A  Circassian 
Village— Russian  Philanthropy  in  Circassia — A  Skirmish — The  Knight 
of  the  Tea-pot. 

BEFORE  leaving  Constantinople  I  had.  been  in  corre- 
spondence witli  Mr.  Charles  Brophy,  Vice-Consul  at 
Burgas,  who  consequently  expected  my  arrival,  and  as 
the  steamer  dropped  anchor  before  that  town,  I  saw  the 
Union  Jack  fluttering  away  in  his  boat,  which  was  making 
for  the  Thetis.  Mr.  Bropliy  has  been  some  years  at  Bur- 
gas, and  has  an  intimate  acquaintance  with  the  language 
and  customs  of  the  nations  who  dwell  around  him,  so  that 
his  companionship  and  information  were  of  great  service  to 
me.  With  kind  hospitality,  he  took  me  under  his  charge, 
and  insisted  upon  my  being  his  guest  at  his  farm  of  Dje- 
verli, about  twenty  miles  inland. 

There  is  nothing  remarkable  about  the  town  of  Burgas, 
except  the  dirt,  the  fleas,  and  the  bugs.  The  last  are 
ravenous  and  active  to  a  degree,  the  like  of  which  I  have 
never  experienced  in  any  other  place.  It  does  not  boast 
of  an  hotel,  but  there  is  a  khan,  or  inn,  to  which  we  be- 
took ourselves,  and  had  a  sort  of  breakfast,  or  dejeuner  a 
la  foiirchette.  If  we  inquu-ed  into  the  parentage  of  this 
establishment,  I  should  say  that  its  father  had  been  a  pot- 
house, and  its  mother  a  small  French  restaurant ;  but  the 
food  was  good  to  a  hungry  man. 

The  Idtchen  adjoined  the  cafe,  and  you  were  supposed 
to  go  into  it,  and  choose  your  dishes — and  there  was 


84  TURKEY  m  EUROPE. 

plenty  of  choice :  stewed  mutton  and  vegetables,  stewed 
beef,  stewed  veal,  macaroni,  soup,  and  fiied  fisli.  The 
order  given,  the  plates  were  brought  into  the  cafe,  where 
there  were  tables,  and  even  table-cloths  and  napkins. 
ISTatives  of  various  races  thronged  the  room,  and  my  sub- 
stantial lunch,  with  excellent  native  wine,  cost  eighteen- 
pence. 

Presently,  what  did  I  see  ?  Yes,  there  was  no  doubt 
about  it,  a  thorough-bred  barrel-organ !  and  the  man 
brought  it  into  the  cafe,  sat  down  beside  me,  and  began 
to  grind  away  with  all  his  might.  Fortunately,  the  poor 
thing  was  hoarse,  so  that  it  was  not  so  deafening  as  it 
might  otherwise  have  been ;  but  I  nearly  choked  myself 
in  my  endeavors  to  finish  my  luncheon,  that  I  might 
escape  from  the  unmusical  instrument. 

In  Constantinople  these  organ-players  are  not  allowed  to 
stop  and  play  in  the  streets,  so  one  man  hoists  it  on  his 
back  and  walks  along,  while  another  follows  and  turns 
the  handle,  and  the  effect  is  very  ludicrous. 

The  population  of  Burgas  is  very  mixed,  but  it  is  chiefly 
Greek  and  Bulgarian.  The  principal  trade  consists  in  the 
export  of  grain  and  wool,  whicli  are  brought  down  in  very 
large  quantities  from  the  interior.  Burgas  is  a  most  im- 
portant position  in  a  strategical  point  of  view,  and  the 
neighboring  hills  on  the  north  of  the  bay  would  form  an 
excellent  jDosition  for  an  intrenched  camp,  as  from  it  an 
enemy  could  command  all  the  eastern  passes  of  the 
Balkan.  But  I  shall  allude  to  this  subject  in  another 
chapter. 

It  was  arranged  that  we  should  start  for  Mr.  Brophy's 
farm  an  hour  after  our  landing,  and  he  had,  with  well-in- 
tentioned kindness,  provided  a  talega,  or  Turkish  carriage, 
for  me  and  my  servant ;  but  he  was  far  too  wise  to  enter 
it  himself,  and  very  properly  rode  his  own  horse.  In 
Turkey,  if  you  are  told  that  you  are  to  start  in  an  hour, 
you  may  be  quite  sure  that  it  means  three  hours  instead 
of  one  ;  and  our  start  in  this  instance  was  no  exception  to 
the  rule.    At  last  the  vehicle  arrived,  and  we  were  fairly 


EN  VOYAGE.  85 

off.  Never  sliall  I  forget  that  drive !  A  talega  lias  wooden 
seats,  with  a  wooden  roof,  open  at  the  sides,  and  springs 
there  are  none.  It  is  an  instrument  of  torture,  devised  to 
shake  out  the  teeth  and  batter  in  the  skull,  and  before  we 
had  jogged  many  miles  along  the  road  there  were  so  many- 
bumps  on  the  toj)  of  my  head  that  a  phrenologist  would 
have  sworn  that  I  was  a  lunatic.  And  so  I  was,  for  trust- 
ing myself  to  such  a  horrible  contrivance  for  making  man 
uncomfortable  and  sore,  when  I  had  two  strong  legs  able 
and  w^illing  to  carry  me.  But  fore- warned  fore-armed — 
never  again  has  mortal  man  been  able  to  lure  me  into  a 
like  agitating  machine. 

Our  road — or  rather  track — lay  over  rolling  hills,  de- 
void of  trees,  but  rich  in  golden  corn,  which,  on  the  20th 
of  July,  was  being  reaped  and  carried.  The  country  had 
the  api^earance  of  huge  Atlantic  waves  turned  into  land, 
which  rolled  away  as  far  as  the  eye  could  reach,  until  it 
merged  into  the  great  plain  of  Adrianoi)le.  On  the  right 
was  the  Balkan  range,  which  here  is  but  from  two  to  three 
thousand  feet  in  height,  wooded  near  the  tops,  and  with 
glades  of  cultivated  land,  where  the  corn  was  yet  un- 
cut. Behind  and  to  the  left  along  the  Black  Sea  coast, 
the  scenery  is  different.  Here  the  smooth  rolling  hills 
give  place  to  very  steej)  and  higher  ground,  which  here 
and  there  deserves  the  name  of  mountain,  and  it  is  for  the 
most  part  covered  with  a  thick  oak  scrub,  which  evident- 
ly, from  the  few  large  trees  that  are  left,  was  once  a 
forest.  This  range  is  dignified  by  the  name  of  Strandja 
Mountains,  and  they  extend  almost  to  Constantinople, 
their  northern  extremity,  which  bends  round  to  the  west, 
being  called  the  Tundja  Mountains,  from  the  river  of  that 
name,  which  cuts  its  way  through  them  on  its  southern 
journey  to  join  the  great  Maritza.  The  varieties  in  the 
scenery,  which  is  rather  curious  than  grand,  is  the  result 
of  varieties  in  geological  formation. 

The  smooth  and,  in  this  eastern  quarter,  tame-looking 
Balkan,  is  built  \vp  of  limestone,  chalk,  and  marl,  of  the 
lower  cretaceous  system,  while  the  Tundja  and  Strandja 


86  TURKEY  m  EUROPE. 

Hills  are  formed  of  tlie  crystalline  rocks  of  mica  scMst, 
with  here  and  there  a  lofty  point  of  syenite  and  gi-anite. 

I  noticed  that  the  soil  upon  which  we  were  traveling 
was  nearly  black ;  and  no  wonder  that  it  was  bearing  such 
heavy  crops  of  corn,  for  it  is  similar  to  the  black  earth  of 
Russia,  which  so  em-iches  the  corn-growing  districts  north 
of  the  Sea  of  Azof.  Sir  Roderick  Murchison  calls  it 
tchornozem,  and  ascribes  its  formation  to  a  sub-aqueous 
origin  through  the  destruction  of  black  Jurassic  shale. 
Pagen,  the  French  agricultural  chemist,  pronounces  it  to 
be  one  of  the  best  wheat  soils  in  the  world,  in  consequence 
of  the  large  proportion  of  azotized  matter  which  it  con- 
tains.    A  sample  of  it  gave  the  following  analysis  : 

Silica 69-8 

Alumina 13'5 

Lime 1"6 

Oreicle  of  Iron '7 

Organic  Matter 64 

Traces  of  Humic  and  Sulpliuric  Acid  and  Chlorine . .   1  "7 

100 
We  passed  through  a  busy  hive  of  reapers,  who  were 
cutting  the  product  of  these  chemical  substances,  and  who 
were  nearly  all  Bulgarian  women.  We  were  going  up  a 
hill  at  the  time,  and  I  had  left  my  "infernal  machine"  to 
enjoy  the  pleasure  of  stretching  my  legs  and  counting  my 
bruises,  when  I  saw  several  of  the  young  women  hastening 
toward  me.  Feeling  that  it  would  be  ungallant  to  turn 
my  back  upon  so  fair  a  charge,  I  stopped,  detennined  to 
see  it  out  at  all  hazards.  On  they  came,  with  laughing 
lips  and  sparkling  eyes,  as  I  stood  wrapt  in  expectant 
wonder,  for  they  were  so  many.  Soon  I  was  surrounded. 
"What  might  be  the  customs  of  the  country,  or  what  might 
be  expected  of  me,  I  knew  not,  and  I  felt  that,  could  my 
friends  at  home  see  me  at  this  moment,  my  situation  would 
be  ludicrous  in  the  extreme ;  but  now  my  hands  were 
kissed,  one  foot  was  raised,  and  the  sole  of  my  foot  was 
rubbed  with  ears  of  corn,  to  signify  that  it  was  the  desire 


Ey  rOTAGB.  87 

of  tliese  brown  damsels  that  I  might  forever  walk  on 
plenty.  This  poetical  consideration  for  my  welfare  de- 
served some  return,  so  I  distributed  some  small  coins 
amongst  them,  and  was  laughingly  released. 

The  farmhouse  belonging  to  my  host  is  on  the  edge  of  a 
Bulgarian  village,  and  I  had  a  good  opportunity  of  study- 
ing the  character  of  these  peojDle  in  this  part  of  Turkey, 
and  of  afterward  comparing  them  with  the  Hellenized 
Bulgarians  on  my  own  estate  in  Macedonia,  and  the  com- 
jparison  was  certainly  in  favor  of  the  non-Hellenic  element. 

It  is  the  fashion  with  residents  in  the  country  to  speak 
of  the  Bulgarian  as  lazy  and  idle,  but  from  my  o^vn  ex- 
perience I  do  not  think  it  is  a  fair  accusation.  It  is  true 
that  the  amount  of  work  done  by  him  in  the  year  is  very 
small,  but  that  is  the  fault  of  his  religion,  which  forbids 
him  to  work  during  the  feast  and  fast  days,  which,  includ- 
ing Sundays,  number  one  hundi'ed  and  eighty  out  of  the 
three  hundi'ed  and  sixty-five  days  in  the  year.  When  he 
does  work,  he  rises  at  four  a.m.  in  the  winter,  and  feeds 
his  working  cattle,  and  is  away  before  daybreak  to  his  bit 
of  land,  which  is  perhaps  two  miles  or  more  distant,  and 
he  plows  it  until  he  can  no  longer  see  to  do  so. 

In  the  summer  he  may  often  be  found  asleep  during  the 
day,  it  is  true ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  he  is  frequently 
at  his  work  at  two  o'clock  in  the  morning,  and  continues 
his  labor,  off  and  on,  until  ten  at  night. 

On  my  o^^ti  estate,  a  Bulgarian  with  an  English  single 
plow  and  two  paks  of  buffaloes — one  pair  in  and  one  out — 
assisted  by  a  boy  to  lead  them,  plows  one  and  one-eighth 
English  acres  on  a  winter's  day,  the  soil  being  a  rich  sandy 
loam,  and  the  furrow  seven  inches  deep.  In  England  one 
acre  is  considered  very  good  work ;  so  that  the  Bulgarian 
cannot  be  called  idle.  The  women  are  exceedingly  indus- 
trious :  they  bake  their  own  bread,  spin  wool  and  cotton, 
and  weave  all  the  cloths  and  woolen  stuffs  for  family  use, 
and  are  seldom  seen  idle  for  any  part  of  the  day. 

The  interiors  of  the  houses  of  the  working  classes  are 
generally  plastered  with  a  mixture  of  cow-dung  and  clay, 


88  TURRET  IN  EUROPE. 

and  consist  of  two  rooms  and  an  inclosed  veranda.  The 
furniture  is  comprised  in  pots  and  pans,  and  some  rugs  for 
bedding,  a  pretty  carpet  for  grand  occasions,  and  some 
gayly-painted  boxes  for  holding  the  family  clothes  and  treas- 
ures ;  and  these,  with  an  open  fire-place  and  chimney,  form 
all  the  household  requirements  of  a  Bulgarian  yeoman. 

The  rooms  are  generally  kept  clean  and  well  swept,  but 
the  exterior  of  the  houses  more  resembles  what  we  see 
about  Irish  cabins.  It  consists  of  an  inclosure,  \^ith  a 
stable  and  straw -house,  but  no  garden.  Although  the 
land  is  admirably  suited  for  it,  they  do  not  attempt  to 
grow  vegetables  for  family  use.  This  neglect  is  caused  by 
the  narrow  limits  of  their  wants.  Good  wheaten  bread,  a 
little  salt  fish,  and  some  oil,  with  the  addition  of  sheep's 
milk,  cheese,  and  sometimes  a  kid  or  lamb,  roasted  whole, 
on  high  days  and  holidays,  form  the  diet  of  the  ordinary 
peasant.  The  better  class  of  yeomen  live  much  in  the 
same  way,  with  the  addition  of  soup,  stuffed  cucumbers, 
called  "bombar,"  and  a  very  good  flat  pastry,  peculiar  to 
the  Bulgarians,  and  made  with  flour,  cheese,  honey,  and 
cream,  called  ' '  melena ;' '  and  I  can  strongly  recommend  a 
traveler  to  ask  for  this  when  passing  through  Bulgarian 
towns.  The  people  are  deficient  in  personal  cleanliness, 
although  fond  of  dress,  and  an  old  man  or  woman  of  eighty 
could  probably  count  the  ablutions  of  the  body  during 
their  whole  lifetime  on  the  fingers  of  one  hand. 

The  dress  of  the  women,  and  indeed  of  the  men  also,  is 
very  picturesque.  The  former  wear  costumes  of  brilliant 
colors  peculiar  to  each  village,  which  is  another  sign  of  the 
power  of  the  Bulgarian  to  sink  individuality  in  the  com- 
mon interest.  The  village  costumes  are  very  varied  and 
brilliant,  but  the  colors  are  so  well  chosen  that  the  effect 
is  harmonious  and  pleasing  to  the  eye.  Their  belts,  brace- 
lets, and  head  ornaments,  made  from  alloyed  silver,  are 
very  elaborate,  and  much  prized.  They  are  handed  do^vn 
from  mother  to  daughter  as  family  heirlooms.  Curiously 
enough,  the  form  of  the  large  round  clasps  of  these  belts 
much  resembles  those  of  the  Etruscans  which  have  been 


^.V  VOYAGE.  89 

found  in  ancient  excavations  in  Italy.  It  is  possible  that 
tliis  may  form  a  link  in  ethnology.  The  peasant  women 
■would  naturally  follow  their  ornamental  customs  through 
generations  upon  generations.  The  Bulgarians  married 
the  Slavonian  women,  and  it  is  quite  possible  that  the  an- 
cient Etruscans  might  have  been  of  the  Slavonic  branch  of 
the  Aryan  race. 

The  Bulgarian  women  marry  young,  but,  from  the  habit 
of  suckling  their  children  up  to  three  and  four  years  of 
age,  they  soon  lose  their  youthful  appearance,  and  at  two- 
and-twenty  look  old  and  haggard.  They  are  very  domes- 
tic, there  is  much  family  affection,  and  but  little  quarrel- 
ing, probably  because  the  women  have  their  time  so  fully 
occupied.  Of  course  there  are  occasional  cases  of  ill-treat- 
ment and  wife-beating,  as  in  England,  but  it  is  quite  the 
excejDtion,  and  not  the  rule. 

Ceremony  is  conspicuous  amongst  them,  especially  at 
weddings  and  burials.  The  former  is  an  occasion  for  a 
general  feast  in  the  village,  and  the  peasant  bridegroom 
will  spend  as  much  as  ten  or  fifteen  pounds  in  wine  and 
sheeiD  for  the  carousals,  which  last  for  three  or  four  days, 
accomi)auied  by  almost  continuous  dancing. 

The  friends  of  the  bridegroom  dance  their  way  to  the 
friends  of  the  bride,  to  the  sound  of  the  drum,  bagpipe, 
and  clarionet,  and  vice  versa.  Then  the  presents  are  exhib- 
ited, which  consist  chiefly  of  embroidered  handkerchiefs ; 
the  bridegroom  pins  these  on  to  his  coat,  and  thus 
decorated,  joins  in  the  dance.  The  night  before  the 
marriage  the  bride  takes  a  bath,  the  first  she  has  ever 
had  in  her  life ;  the  great  ceremony  of  croA^Tiing  the 
bride  takes  place  either  in  the  church  or  in  the  bride- 
groom's house,  in  the  presence  of  their  friends.  The  priest 
performs  the  service.  The  bride  arrives  on  horseback, 
covered  with  a  long  vail  and  a  profusion  of  gold  tinsel  on 
her  head.  During  the  service  a  croAvn  made  of  alloyed 
silver  is  placed  upon  her  head,  grain  and  raisins  are  scat- 
tered over  the  ha]ppy  pair  and  amongst  the  friends,  a 
variety  of  forms  are  gone  through,  and  the  marriage  cere- 


90  TURRET  IN  EUROPE. 

mony  is  completed.  Tlie  bride  kisses  tlie  liands  of  her 
friends  with  a  very  slow  and  dignified  inclination,  the 
dancing  is  renewed,  and  the  tired  couple  are  left  in  soli- 
tude. The  Bulgarians  are  peculiarly  fond  of  dancing, 
which  is  usually  practiced  to  the  sound  of  the  bagpipe.  The 
women  and  men  Join  hands  until  they  form  a  long  line, 
which  then  serpentines  about  to  a  slow  movement  which 
seems  to  have  great  fascination,  and  to  produce  a  sort  of 
quiet  ecstasy.  The  bagpipe  is  similar  in  every  respect  to 
that  used  in  Scotland,  and  being  struck  by  the  likeness  of 
the  instruments,  I  asked  whether  they  had  any  quick 
dances.  The  reply  was  in  the  affirmative,  and  to  my  aston- 
ishment the  piper  at  once  struck  up  a  tune  which  would 
have  made  an  excellent  accompaniment  to  a  Highland  reel, 
and  two  men  stood  up  and  danced  with  that  same  solem- 
nity and  air  of  importance  which  we  see  in  Scotland.  It 
is  most  remarkable  that  the  dances  are  as  near  as  possible 
alike :  there  is  the  occasional  shout,  the  snapping  of  the 
fingers,  the  sudden  turning  of  the  body,  and  the  steps  are 
also  very  similar.  Again,  we  find  the  musical  accompani- 
ments the  same  ;  and  when  we  consider  how  dances  pre- 
serve their  character  over  many  ages,  we  can  hardly  deny 
the  conclusion  that  the  ancestors  of  the  Scotch  Highlander 
and  the  Bulgarian  must  have  had  the  same  dancing-mas- 
ters. The  dance  may  probably  have  traveled  westward 
with  the  ancient  emigTant  j)opulation  from  the  confines  of 
China  and  the  Himalayas. 

I  was  anxious  to  further  test  the  similarity  in  music,  so 
taking  the  piper  on  one  side,  I  asked  him  to  let  me  hear 
the  sort  of  air  he  would  play  if,  for  example,  he  had  lost 
his  betrothed.  I  found  that  I  had  most  unwittingly  struck 
a  note  of  real  sorrow,  for  the  tears  came  into  the  eyes  of 
the  poor  young  fellow,  and  he  retired  into  a  recess  in  the 
room,  and  played  one  of  those  sad  and  wild  pibrochs  that 
we  often  hear  in  the  Scotch  Highlands ;  there  was  such  a 
melancholy  harmony  in  the  air  that  I  thought  he  must 
have  instinctively  felt  the  poetry  of  those  beautiful  lines 
in  the  "Message": 


EN  VOYAGE.  91 

*'  Then  I  heard  a  strain  of  music. 

So  mighty,  so  pure,  so  clear. 
That  my  very  sorrow  was  silent. 

And  my  heart  stood  still  to  hear  ; 
It  rose  in  harmonious  rushings 

Of  mingled  voices  and  strings. 
And  I  tenderly  laid  my  message 

On  the  music's  outspread  wings  ; 
And  I  heard  it  float  farther  and  farther, 

In  sound  more  perfect  than  speech — 
Parther  than  sight  can  follow, 

Farther  than  soul  can  reach. 
And  I  know  that  at  last  my  message 

Has  passed  through  the  golden  gate, 
So  my  heart  is  no  longer  restless, 

And  I  am  content  to  wait.'* 

As  soon  as  the  sad  strains  were  over,  he  got  np  and 
silently  went  Ms  way. 

This  remembrance  of  death  leads  me  to  describe  a  fu- 
neral at  which  I  was  present  some  time  afterward.  A  young 
Bulgarian  in  my  employment  suddenly  died  of  apoplexy : 
all  the  family  immediately  turned  out  of  the  house,  and 
commenced  a  melancholy  wail  and  shouting  ;  the  dead  man 
was  dressed  in  his  best  clothes,  and  shortly  afterward 
carried  on  a  stretcher  in  funeral  procession  to  the  neigh- 
boring church,  where  the  priest  performed  a  long  funeral 
service  over  the  body ;  each  of  the  man's  friends  and 
neighbors  then  came  forward,  knelt  and  prayed  by  the 
side  of  the  body,  and  then  kissed  his  lips — first  all  the 
men,  and  then  all  the  women.  He  was  then  carried  to 
the  churchyard,  and  lowered  into  his  grave  with  great 
solemnity  and  decorum.  The  grave  was  covered  only 
with  boards,  upon  which  flowers  were  strewn.  This 
poor  man  was  engaged  to  be  married  to  a  girl  living  in  a 
neighboring  cottage  :  she  went  daily  to  the  grave,  and 
sat  there  for  hours,  and  nothing  would  console  her. 

For  months  afterward  she  would  sit  alone  out  on  the 
plain,  in  all  weathers,  grieving  over  her  loss. 


92  TURRET  m  EUROPE. 

After  I  ]iad  been  a  fe^v  days  at  Mr.  Bropliy's  farm  I 
received  an  invitation  to  dinner  from  the  leading  Bulgarian 
in  the  village..  TMs  man  was  a  most  excellent  fellow,  and 
had  made  his  way  to  independence  by  his  own  industry  in 
agriculture,  and  was  now  the  owner  of  a  small  landed 
estate  and  large  flocks  of  sheep,  although  he  had  com- 
menced life  with  only  a  plow  and  a  pair  of  buffaloes. 

About  eight  o'clock  my  Bulgarian  host  came  to  an- 
nounce that  dinner  was  ready,  and  we  proceeded  to  his 
house,  where  we  were  ushered  into  the  room,  for  there  was 
only  one  besides  the  family  bedroom.  Everything  was 
scrupulously  clean,  the  room  was  tastefully  arranged  with 
rugs  and  cushions,  and  there  was  a  blazing  fire  on  the 
ground  in  the  center  of  the  room,  and  upon  it  several 
copper  pots  which  gave  forth  most  savory  smells. 

The  female  part  of  the  establishment  were  there  to  re- 
ceive me,  and  they  consisted  of  the  wives  of  the  host  and 
bis  son,  together  with  a  daughter,  all  remarkably  plain. 
But  the  heat !  The  month  was  July,  and  the  room  was  like 
an  oven,  while  I,  as  the  honored  guest,  had  to  take  the 
seat  near  the  fire ! 

'  I  whispered  to  the  vice-consul  that  before  dinner  was 
half  over  there  would  be  nothing  left  of  me  but  the  wick, 
and  so  he  considerately  suggested  to  our  host  that-  as  it 
was  a  lovely  moonlight  night,  we  might  dine  in  the  ver- 
anda. Happy  thought !  Our  host  at  once  consented,  but 
not  without  expressions  from  the  female  portion  of  the 
company  that  we  should  die  of  cold,  although  the  ther- 
mometer was  at  70°  Fahr. 

We  were  soon  seated,  cross-legged  and  Turkish  fashion, 
in  a  circle  on  the  ground  in  the  veranda,  the  ladies  look- 
ing on ;  in  the  center  was  placed  a  basin  of  soup,  and  we 
were  each  given  a  shallow  iron  spoon,  with  which  we  were 
supi^osed  to  dip  into  the  common  bowl.  If  there  is  one 
thing  which  I  cannot  "abide,"  it  is  sitting  cross-legged 
and  Turkish  fashion  on  the  hard  ground.  The  heels  of 
my  boots  get  into  wrong  places,  I  find  that  I  have  bones 
where  I  always  thought  all  was  soft,  and  I  either  sit  so  far 


EN  VOYAGE.  93 

backward  that  I  am  in  danger  of  rolling  over  in  tliat 
direction,  or  so  far  forward  that  I  have  the  appearance  of 
saying  my  i^rayers,  besides  which  I  get  the  cramp  ;  so  that 
altogether  I  did  not  feel  exactly  at  my  ease  in  this  seden- 
tary attitude.  Added  to  this,  the  distance  from  my  mouth 
to  the  "common  bowl"  was  considerable,  and  to  transfer 
the  soup  across  it  in  a  shallow  spoon  was  a  feat  which  was 
only  to  be  accomplished  by  patience  and  perseverance.  In 
my  first  attempt  I  got  the  cramp  in  my  foot  when  the 
spoon  was  half-way  to  my  mouth,  and  deposited  the  soup 
outside  instead  of  inside  my  waistcoat,  and  learned  that 
it  was  decidedly  hot,  which  was  so  far  satisfactory. 

I  then  tried  the  kneeling  attitude,  and  got  on  better. 
The  soup  was  a  delicious  mixture  of  sweets  and  sours,  and 
full  of  vegetables. 

Next  came  a  lamb,  roasted  whole,  head  and  all,  which 
we  all  cut  at  in  common  ;  but  the  expression  on  the  lamb's 
countenance  made  me  feel  like  a  cannibal.  The  delicious 
pastry  called  "melena"  followed,  wine  was  handed  round 
during  the  meal,  and  even  an  alderman  might  have  felt 
that  he  had  dined. 

The  son  of  our  host  and  his  wife  then  came  round  with 
a  brass  dish,  a  piece  of  soap,  and  a  very  pretty  embroid- 
ered towel,  "wdth  which  we  cleansed  our  hands,  and  re- 
lapsed into  coffee,  cigarettes,  and  conversation. 

While  we  were  talking,  I  heard  a  loud  and  peculiar  cry 
outside  the  village,  and  was  told  that  some  stranger  had 
arrived,  and  was  calling  for  the  Kaiyah,  or  village  official 
appointed  to  entertain  any  wayworn  traveler  that  may 
arrive. 

This  is  a  custom  which  prevails  throughout  the  whole 
of  Turkey,  and  such  a  thing  as  dying  from  starvation, 
which  we  sometimes  hear  of  in  civilized  England,  can  only 
occur  as  an  act  of  suicide. 

I  was  much  struck  with  the  quiet  ease  and  dignity  of 
my  Bulgarian  host,  who  was  not  in  the  least  put  out  at 
the  influx  of  foreign  guests,  but  did  the  honors  like  one 
of  Nature's  gentlemen. 


94  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

The  following  day  lie  took  me  to  see  the  village  school, 
wMcli  lie  had  built  at  his  own  expense.  It  consisted  of  a 
good-sized  room,  which  was  well  suited  for  the  purpose. 
There  were  about  twenty  tidy  boys  and  girls  receiving  in- 
struction, and  they  all  stood  up  on  our  entering,  and 
seemed  under  excellent  discipline,  and  also  most  intelli- 
gent and  anxious  to  learn. 

Mr.  Brophy  had  as  an  agent  a  Polish  engineer  who  had 
been  employed  by  the  Turkish  Government  in  making 
roads.  There  are  a  large  number  of  these  Poles  scattered 
about  Turkey,  and  the  bitterness  of  their  hate  of  Russia 
is  only  rivaled  by  that  of  the  Circassians.  They  are  ex- 
ceedingly clever,  and  most  agreeable  companions,  and  the 
agent  Listopat  stood  out  pre-eminent  in  that  respect.  He 
was  one  of  those  good-natured  and  thoroughly  unselfish 
men  that  are  so  rare  that,  in  these  selfish  days,  we  feel 
inclined  to  bow  down  and  worship  them  as  a  part  of  the 
glory  of  human  nature.  His  thoughts  were  always  set 
upon  everything  and  everybody  but  himseK,  and  there 
was  not  a  biped  or  quadruped  within  his  ken  that  was  not 
thought  and  cared  for  as  if  it  were  his  own  child.  Of 
course  he  was  very  poor ;  such  men  always  are ;  and  he 
was  so  far  mortal  that  he  had  his  faults,  which  we  may  as 
well  hide  under  a  bushel,  or  let  us  say  a  peck,  for  it  would 
not  take  a  very  large  vessel  to  cover  them.  All  Poles  are 
great  linguists  ;  but  his  talents  in  that  direction  did  not 
extend  to  English,  and  it  was  most  amusing  to  hear  his 
endeavors  to  make  my  Cheshire  lad  John  understand  his 
instructions. 

On  one  occasion  he  had  sent  him  on  an  errand — ^not, 
however,  without  grave  doubts  in  his  own  mind  whether 
he  had  conveyed  his  right  meaning.  Presently,  when  John 
returned  with  the  article  required,  Listopat,  in  his  excited 
glee,  rushed  at  him,  patted  him  on  the  back,  exclaiming, 
"Ah  !  good  dog,  good  dog !  well  done,  good  dog ! "  John 
is  a  sedate  lad,  who  rather  stands  upon  his  dignity,  and 
the  expression  of  his  countenance  at  this  canine  greeting 
was  expressive  of  wonder  and  wounded  pride.    Listopat 


^.y  VOYAGE.  95 

in  Ms  turn  now  saAv  that  tliere  was  some  mistake,  and  ex- 
plained himself  in  Turkish,  when,  to  our  intense  amuse- 
ment, we  found  that  he  thought  he  was  saying  "good 
hoy  !''"'  It  was  curious  to  see  how  well  John  managed  to 
get  on  with  the  natives,  notwithstanding  his  ignorance  of 
their  language.  Mr.  Brophy  had  as  a  ser\' ant  a  Bulgar- 
ian lad  who  did  not  understand  a  single  word  of  Eng- 
lish, and  yet  we  used  to  hear  him  and  John  chatting 
away  together  as  though  they  perfectly  understood  each 
other. 

A  few  miles  from  Djeverli  there  was  a  large  Circassian 
village,  and  as  I  was  most  anxious  to  make  the  acquain- 
tance of  these  celebrated  people,  Mr.  Brophy  kindly  ac- 
companied me  to  make  a  call  upon  their  chief.  But  be- 
fore giving  an  account  of  my  visit,  I  -svill  describe  how  it 
came  about  that  these  people  are  settled  on  Turkish  soil. 

In  the  year  1864,  after  many  years  of  struggling,  and  on 
their  part  gallant  fighting,  their  subjugation  to  the  Rus- 
sians in  the  Caucasus  was  nearly  completed.  Long  expe- 
rience had  taught  their  conquerors  the  untamable  charac- 
ter of  their  new  subjects,  and  as  a  large  body  of  the 
Cii'cassians  inhabited  a  very  beautiful,  fertile,  but  moun- 
tainous district,  it  was  felt  that  their  warlike  propensities 
in  such  a  country  might  on  occasions  prove  both  trouble- 
some and  dangerous. 

The  Russians  are  not  a  race  to  be  checked  by  conscien- 
tious scruples,  except  where  Turkish  subjects  are  con- 
cerned, so  they  determined  to  sweep  these  troublesome 
people  clean  off  the  dangerous  country  they  inhabited. 
They  therefore  told  them  that  they  must  move ;  but  it  is 
only  fair  to  state  that  land  was  offered  to  them,  and  facili- 
ties for  emigration,  in  the  low  steppes  of  Russia. 

But  it  so  happened  that  these  Circassians  had  an  over- 
weening love  for  their  o\vn  homes  in  their  beautiful  hiUs, 
and  many  of  them  actually  dared  to  refuse  to  go.  This 
was  too  much  for  the  patience  of  the  conqueror,  so  he 
drove  them  out,  bag  and  baggage,  to  the  number  of  300,- 
000 ;  and  this  is  how  he  did  it : — 


96  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

"  Consul  Dickson  to  Earl  Eussell. 

''  Soukum-Kale,  March  17th,  1864. 

"  I  feel  it  a  painful  duty  to  report  a  deed  that  has  come  to  my 
knowledge  which  has  so  exasperated  the  Circassians  as  to  excite 
them  to  further  resistance,  however  desperate  their  case  may  be. 

"  A  Eussian  detachment  having  caf)tured  the  village  of  Toubek, 
on  the  Soobashi  Eiver,  inhabited  by  about  100  Abadzekh,  and 
after  these  liad  surrendered  themselves  prisoners,  they  were  all 
massacred  hy  the  Russian  troops.  Among  the  victims  were  two 
women  in  an  advanced  state  of  pregnancy,  and  five  children.  The 
detachment  in  question  belongs  to  Count  Evdokimoff's  army,  and 
is  said  to  have  advanced  from  the  Pshish  Valley.  As  the  Eussian 
troops  gain  ground  on  the  coast,  the  natives  are  not  allowed  to 
remain  tbere  on  any  terms,  but  are  compelled  either  to  transfer 
themselves  to  the  plains  of  the  Kouban,  or  emigrate  to  Turkey." 

This  was  but  one  out  of  many  sucli  acts,  and  the  unfor- 
tunate Circassians  kno^\dng  the  sympathy  for  suffering  in 
the  hearts  of  the  English  people,  made  the  following  ap- 
peal to  our  Queen : 

"  Our  most  humble  petition  to  Her  Magnificent  Majesty  the 
Queen  and  Emperor  (sic)  of  England  is  to  the  effect  that  : 

"It  is  now  more  than  eighty  years  since  the  Eussian  Govern- 
ment is  unlawfully  striving  to  subdue  and  annex  to  its  dominions 
Circassia,  which  since  the  creation  of  the  world  has  been  our 
home  and  country. 

"  It  slaughters  like  sheep  the  children,  helpless  women,  and  old 
men  that  fall  into  its  hands.  It  rolls  about  their  heads  with  the 
bayonet  like  melons  ;  and  there  is  no  act  of  oppression  or  cruelty 
which  is  beyond  the  pale  of  civilization  and  humanity,  and  which 
defies  descrijition,  that  it  has  not  committed.  We  have  not,  from 
father  to  son,  at  the  cost  of  our  lives  and  property,  refrained 
from  opposing  the  tyrannical  acts  of  the  Government  in  defense 
of  our  country,  which  is  dearer  to  us  than  our  lives.  But  dur- 
ing the  last  year  or  two  it  has  taken  advantage  of  a  famine, 
caused  by  a  drought  with  which  the  Almighty  visited  us,  as  well 
as  by  its  own  ravages  ;  and  it  has  occasioned  us  great  distress  by 
its  severe  attacks  by  sea  and  land.  Many  are  the  lives  which 
have  been  lost  in  battle,  from  hunger  in  the  mountains,  from  des- 
titution on  the  sea-coast,  and  from  want  of  skill  at  sea. 


EN  VOYAGE.  97 

*'  "V\'e  therefore  invoke  the  mediation  and  precious  assistance  of 
the  British  Government  and  people — the  guardian  of  humanity 
and  the  center  of  justice — in  order  to  repel  the  brutal  attacks  of 
the  Eussian  Government  on  our  country,  and  save  our  country 
and  nation  together. 

"But  if  it  is  not  possible  to  afford  this  help  for  the  preserva- 
tion of  our  country  and  race,  then  we  pray  to  be  afforded  facili- 
ties for  removing  to  a  place  of  safety  our  helpless  and  miserable 
children  and  women,  that  are  perishing  by  the  brutal  attacks  of 
the  enemy,  as  well  as  by  the  effects  of  famine.  And  if  neither 
of  these  two  requests  is  taken  into  consideration,  and  if  in  our 
helpless  condition  we  are  utterly  annihilated,  notwithstanding  our 
appeals  to  the  mercy  and  grace  of  the  goveriynents,  then  we  shall 
not  cease  to  invoke  our  right  in  the  presence  of  the  Lord  of  the 
•universe,  of  Him  who  has  confided  to  your  Majesty  sovereignty, 
strength,  and  power  for  the  purpose  of  protecting  the  weak. 

"April  9th,  1864." 

I  cannot  find  that  any  indignation  meetings  were  held 
in  Great  Britain,  nor  that  the  Minister  for  Foreign  Affau's 
called  npon  the  Russian  Government  to  bring  to  trial  the 
commander  of  the  detachment  which  massacred  the  pris- 
oners, and  women  and  children,  as  was  done  in  the  case 
of  Turkey  after  the  Bulgarian  atrocities ;  but  I  do  find 
that  the  Turkish  Government  (the  anti-human  specimens 
of  humanity,  as  they  have  been  called  by  theii*  enemies  in 
England),  oifered  to  receive  the  Circassian  emigrants,  and 
immediately  gave  £200,000  toward  their  relief  and  colon- 
ization in  the  Turkish  Empu'e,  and  this  sum  being  a  strain 
on  the  Turkish  resources,  and  a  far  larger  amount  being 
necessary,  our  ambassador  at  Constantinople  suggested  to 
Earl  Russell,  the  Minister  for  Foreign  Affairs,  that  it 
might  be  worthy  of  consideration  whether  a  loan  for  the 
object  in  view  might  not  be  raised  in  this  country,  pro- 
vided the  Turkish  Government  would  guarantee  the  inter- 
est.    To  which  Earl  Russell  replied  ; 

"Her  Majesty's  Government  have  had  under  their  considera- 
tion your  Excellency's  dispatch  of  the  3d  inst.,  on  the  subject  of 
the  immigration  of  Circassians  into  the  Ottoman  dominions,  and 
7 


98  TURRET  IN  EUROPE. 

I  have  to  acquaint  you  that  they  concur  in  your  suggestions  as  to 
the  best  means  of  providing  a  permanent  settlement  for  these  un- 
happy people,  and  approve  tbe  course  pursued  by  you  in  the 
matter." 

But  notiiing  more  was  done  toward  the  loan,  and  the 
Turkish  Government  colonized  the  emigrants  near  Trebi- 
zond,  and  in  Turkey  in  Europe,  and  various  parts  of  the 
empire,  and  so  the  matter  dropped,  and  we  must  hope 
that  the  Circassians  were  satisfied  by  their  appeal  to  the 
sympathy  of  the  British  public. 

That  these  people  had  been  reduced  to  a  state  of  utter 
despair  and  demoralization,  may  be  inferred  from  the  ac- 
count given  of  them  by  Consul  Stevens  at  Trebizond  ;  he 
says : 

''  The  emigrants  present  at  Trebizond  are  of  the  Oubikh  tribe. 
They  are  generally  speaking  poor,  and  of  an  indolent  character. 
They  have  no  regard  for  cleanliness  which  prevents  the  allay  of 
disease  in  their  ranks,  and  which  is  making  such  fearful  havoc 
amongst  them,  the  deaths  averaging  from  120  to  150  per  diem  out 
of  25,000. 

*'  They  live  huddled  together,  infecting  one  another.  They  sell 
the  rations  and  clothing  distributed  to  them  by  the  local  authori- 
ties ;  they  sell  their  children  for  a  few  piasters  ;  they  disinter 
their  dead  at  night,  to  steal  the  calico  wrappers  which  envelope 
the  bodies,  and  then  abandon  the  corpses  in  the  open  fields. 
Lately  they  concealed  several  deaths  from  the  local  authorities, 
with  a  view  to  continue  in  the  receipt  of  the  rations  of  the  de- 
ceased individuals  ;  and  one  corpse  was  discovered  hid  for  eleven 
days  in  one  of  the  tents,  other  emigrants  occupying  the  same  cov- 
ering without  the  slightest  repugnance. " 

It  seemed  as  though  these  unfortunate  people  were  in 
such  a  state  of  misery  that  they  did  not  care  for  life.  I 
have  been  told  that  those  who  accepted  the  Government 
lands  on  the  Russian  steppes  rejoice  whenever  a  male  child 
dies,  because  he  has  escaped  from  life  as  a  Russian  sub- 
ject, but  my  informant  was  one  of  the  Circassian  emi- 
grants to  Turkey. 

These  people,  in  their  owti  country,  lived  very  much  as 


CmCASSIANS.  09 

the  Highland  clans  of  Scotland  in  former  days.  They 
were  constantly  at  feud  with  each  other,  and  their  princi- 
pal occupation  was  cattle  and  horse-lifting.  Their  emigra- 
tion to  Turkey  has  gone  on  from  the  year  1864  to  the 
present  day,  and  in  Turkey  in  Europe  they  are  scattered 
about  Roumelia,  and  also  north  of  the  Balkan,  but  their 
principal  location  is  along  the  Black  Sea  coast. 

Phj'sically  they  are  splendid  specimens  of  the  animal 
man,  and  they  strut  about  with  upright  gait  and  haughty 
mien,  as  much  as  to  say,  "The  world  belongs  to  us,  but 
we  permit  you  to  live  in  it." 

In  their  very  blood  they  carry  about  such  a  wild,  inde- 
pendent, and  untamable  character,  that  they  form  the 
most  dangerous  of  neighbors,  and  the  most  troublesome 
of  subjects.  But  they  are  bons  diables,  and  very  pleas- 
ant companions  if  you  do  not  possess  anything  worth 
stealing. 

They  group  themselves  into  viQages  here  and  there,  and 
dwell  in  houses  buUt  of  wattle  and  mud,  with  either  tile 
or  reed  roofs,  and  which  are  generally  hidden  as  much  as 
possible  from  view,  by  the  choice  of  the  site,  and  by  trees 
and  shrubs. 

The  dwellings  are  devoid  of  furniture,  and  have  a  door, 
an  extremely  small  window  in  one  comer,  and  a  chimney. 

The  Circassians  are  of  the  Mohammedan  faith,  and  the 
great  ambition  of  the  villagers  is  to  establish  a  mosque  in 
each  of  their  small  communities. 

They  cultivate  the  land,  but  in  a  very  careless  and  lazy 
manner  ;  they  steal  everything  which  comes  in  their  way, 
and  their  ways  are  many. 

It  is  said  that  hospitality  is  a  remnant  of  barbarism,  if 
so,  the  Circassians  are  barbarous,  for  they  possess  that 
genial  quality  to  an  eminent  degree.  But  to  return  to 
my  visit  to  their  village  near  Djeverli. 

The  chief  was  away,  but  I  was  received  with  great 
civility  by  some  of  the  inhabitants,  and  led  to  an  empty 
house,  which  soon  became  crowded  %vith  male  villagers, 
some  of  them  old  and  dignified  men  who  had  seen  many  a 


100  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

fight  against  the  Russians  in  their  mountain  homes  of  the 
Caucasus.  As  soon  as  I  was  seated  I  saw  all  eyes  turned 
upon  my  gun  and  pistols,  and  I  was  politely  requested  to 
offer  them  for  inspection.  They  were  both  of  good  work- 
manshij),  and  the  eyes  of  the  men  quite  glistened  with 
delight  as  they  were  handed  round,  and  I  saw  that  I  was 
now  regarded  with  greater  respect.  They  in  their  turn 
showed  me  their  weapons,  which  were  all  flint  and  steel 
locks,  but  exquisitely  worked  and  inlaid  with  silver. 
They  also  brought  out  some  chain  armor  which  had  been 
worn  by  their  fathers,  and  which  seemed  to  be  considered 
almost  sacred.  My  gun  was  handed  back  with  as  much 
care  as  a  mother  would  handle  her  first-born  babe.  The 
conversation  turned  upon  the  history  of  their  race,  but 
they  did  not  seem  to  know  anything  beyond  their  grand- 
fathers ;  their  hate  of  the  Russians  was  something  intense, 
and  I  pity  any  of  that  nation  that  may  have  the  misfor- 
tune to  fall  into  their  hands. 

I  was  now  regaled  with  a  capital  lunch,  consisting  of  a 
dish  called  "pasta,"  a  sort  of  peas-pudding  made  of  millet, 
a  cucumber  salad,  a  roast  lamb's  head,  and  coffee.  There 
was  no  wine,  as  the  people  are  Mohammedans,  and  do 
not  touch  it;  but  a  drink  called  "Iran,"  made  of  sour 
buttermUk,  and  to  be  found  in  every  Turkish  and  Circas- 
sian village,  was  very  refreshing  and  acceptable.  Any 
reference  to  their  thieving  propensities  seemed  to  cause 
great  amusement,  and  the  young  men  informed  me  that 
they  did  not  know  how  to  thieve,  but  they  looked  with  ad- 
miration at  their  fathers  and  declared  them  real  adepts 
in  the  art.  This  was  a  filial  respect  which  probably  would 
not  be  set  down  as  a  virtue  in  Exeter  Hall,  but  it  cannot 
be  called  a  willful  vice,  as  the  children  are  educated  to 
consider  it  an  ambition. 

I  was  told  by  one  fine  young  man,  with  great  pride, 
that  his  father  could  steal  a  horse  out  of  a  stable  whilst 
the  owner  was  asleep  by  the  side  of  it.  Their  manners 
are  very  courteous,  but  independent :  such  is  the  education 
of  the  male  children.    The  females  are  brought  up  to  be 


circassia:n's.  lOi 

sold  as  slaves  to  foreign  harems,  and  tliey  look  forward 
to  entry  into  that  life  as  a  yonng  lady  in  England  does  to 
"coming  out."  Their  prices  vary  according  to  beauty, 
but  as  far  as  I  could  gather  the  average  is  about  £100. 

As  a  rule  the  women  cover  their  faces  and  retire  within 
their  houses  on  the  approach  of  a  giaour,  but  on  one  oc- 
casion I  came  suddenly,  as  I  turned  a  corner,  upon  five 
young  girls,  about  eighteen  years  of  age,  who  passed  close 
to  me  mthout  covering  their  faces  or  appearing  either 
horrified  or  bashful.  Two  of  them  were  tall  and  exceed- 
ingly well-made  and  graceful,  and  certainly  very  beauti- 
ful. Amongst  the  men  I  noticed  two  types  of  face,  the 
one  of  Tartar,  and  the  other  of  what  must  be  called  Cir- 
cassian, extraction,  as  it  is  one  of  the  oldest-known  races 
in  the  world.  The  latter  is  more  like  the  handsomest 
form  of  Albanian  countenance.  The  origin  of  the  Tartar 
type  arises  from  the  custom  of  making  slaves  of  all 
enemies  captured  in  battle,  these  slaves  become  heredi- 
tary, and  as  a  consequence  are  mixed  up  T\4th  the  people. 
When  the  Circassians  emigrated  to  Turkey  they  brought 
with  them  their  hereditary  slaves.  These  people  are  now 
beginning  to  discover  that  by  the  laws  of  their  adopted 
country  they  are  free,  but  their  Circassian  owners  have  no 
notion  of  acknowledging  such  a  right,  and  many  disputes 
and  quarrels,  sometimes  resulting  in  bloodshed,  have  in 
consequence  arisen  with  the  Turkish  authorities,  who  en- 
deavor to  enforce  the  law. 

The  Circassian  argument  is  this  :  "You  allowed  us  to 
settle  in  your  country,  and  made  no  terms.  These  people 
have  been  our  slaves  from  generation  to  generation,  and 
now  you  have  no  right  to  make  us  give  them  up.  If  you 
try  to  compel  us,  we  will  oi^pose  force  to  force,  and  fight 
as  long  as  we  can  :  we  shall  probably  be  beaten,  but  will 
never  give  in."  This  is  a  nice  hornet's  nest  in  the  midst 
of  the  Turks,  and  certainly  not  a  grateful  return  for  hos- 
pitality. 

The  CuTassians  in  European  Turkey  are  now  estimated 
at  200,000,  and  they  are  the  terror  of  their  neighbors, 


102  TURKEY  m  EUROPE. 

wlietlier  Turks  or  Christians.  Their  depredations  go  on 
■unchecked  through  fear  of  reprisals.  Their  interest  at 
high  quarters,  through  the  introduction  of  their  beautiful 
gMs  to  the  principal  harems  at  Constantinople  and  else- 
where, is  so  great  that  it  is  found  diflQcult  to  get  convic- 
tions against  them.  They  well  know  their  own  power, 
and  unless  stringent  measures  are  taken  to  stop  further 
immigration,  and  to  enforce  the  law  strictly  over  those 
who  are  colonized,  they  will  prove  a  thorn  in  the  side  of 
Turkey  for  many  a  year  to  come,  and  a  great  bar  to  prog- 
ress. 

I  left  the  Circassian  village  impressed  with  the  fact  that 
I  had  been  amongst  a  set  of  men  Avith  remarkable  force  of 
character,  but  whether  they  possess  a  sufficient  amount 
of  self-control  to  enable  them  to  become,  as  a  nation, 
civilized  members  of  society,  is  a  doubtful  question.  The 
following  day,  the  chief  of  the  village — who  had  been 
absent  during  my  visit — returned  my  call.  He  was  a  dark 
man,  of  middle  height,  dressed  in  the  usual  long,  dark, 
cloth  frock  coat,  with  trousers  and  long  boots,  the  tops 
embroidered  with  silver.  He  wore  a  fez  for  a  cap,  and  I 
noticed  that  his  feet  and  hands  were  remarkably  small. 
His  weapons  consisted  of  a  pair  of  beautiful  silver- 
mounted-flint-and  steel  pistols,  and  a  silver-hilted  dagger. 
He  was  a  cheery,  independent  character,  with  a  sufficient 
amount  of  dignity,  and  he  made  himself  quite  at  home. 
His  sharj)  and  somewhat  fierce  eyes  ranged  quickly  over 
everything  that  was  in  the  room,  and  there  was  an  exj^res- 
sion  in  them  that  bespoke  but  little  respect  for  mewn 
and  tuum :  he  was,  in  fact,  the  very  picture  of  a  robber 
chief.  He  was  a  man  of  great  influence  amongst  his  race, 
and  from  him  I  learnt  that  the  Cii'cassians  in  Turkey  have 
an  organization  by  which  they  can  quickly  assemble  a 
number  of  armed  horsemen  on  any  point  in  an  incredibly 
short  space  of  time,  and  that  by  giving  the  signal  he 
could  in  two  days  have  a  thousand  at  his  own  village.  It 
so  happened  that  at  this  very  period  a  dispute  was  going 
on  between  the  Turkish  authorities  and  his  own  village, 


CIECASSIAKS.  103 

witli  regard  to  the  slave  question.  A  body  of  zaptieJis 
(native  mounted  police)  liad  been  sent  to  the  village  to 
enforce  justice,  upon  which  two  of  them  were  seized  by 
the  Circassians,  tied  up  and  flogged,  and  sent  back  to 
their  government  employers,  with  the  message  that  a 
worse  fate  would  await  any  more  of  these  troublesome 
officials  who  should  think  of  intruding  their  officious  per- 
sons within  the  sacred  precincts  of  the  village.  This  was 
rather  too  strong  a  dose  of  rebellion  for  the  Turkish  gov- 
erning pasha,  so  a  body  of  250  Turkish  cavalry  were  sent 
to  the  village  to  enforce  order  and  the  law  ;  but  the  Circas- 
sians knew  well  that  they  were  coming,  and  the  Turks  on 
their  arrival  found  a  thousand  Cu'cassian  irregular  cavahy 
ranged  up  before  the  village.  It  would  evidently  be  a 
serious  ailau',  and  might  cause  trouble,  so  the  Turkish 
force  retii'ed  for  "orders."  The  Circassians,  reinforced, 
moved  their  ground  to  a  strong  position,  and  a  powerful 
force  of  Turkish  troops,  consisting  of  the  three  arms,  was 
sent  against  them.  The  Turkish  commander  was  loth  to 
fight,  not  from  any  want  of  courage — far  from  it — but  who 
knew  what  influence  some  of  these  Circassians  had  at 
court?  He  therefore  tried  conciliation,  and  summoned 
them  to  surrender,  otherwise  he  would  be  under  the  pain- 
ful necessity  of  ordering  a  charge.  There  was  nothing 
the  Circassians  would  like  better,  so  they  begged  the  Turks 
to  "come  on "  and  try  it.  There  was  no  help  for  it,  so  the 
order  was  given  to  advance,  and  forty  Turks  were  im- 
mediately placed  Jiors  de  coiiibat  by  a  volley  from  the 
Circassians.  Another  parley  now  ensued,  and  negotia- 
tions were  prolonged  until  the  Cu'cassians  were  allowed 
to  disperse,  and  the  affair  was  to  be  settled  at  Constanti- 
nople, but  I  afterwards  heard  that  the  whole  business 
had  been  hushed  up.  I  endeavored  to  be  present  at  this 
onelee^  but  there  was  so  much  difficulty  and  mystery 
in  gaining  information  from  either  side  as  to  time  and 
locality  that  it  was  over  on  my  arrival.  The  numbers 
concerned  were  probably  much  exaggerated,  as  they 
always  are  in  Turkey. 


1 04  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

I  was  mucli  amused  by  a  little  episode  in  the  return 
visit  of  tlie  Circassian  chief.  My  host,  Mr.  Brophy, 
hospitably  offered  him  some  tea,  of  which  his  race  are 
very  fond.  I  immediately  detected  that  the  eagle  eye  of 
my  visitor — and  there  was  no  mistaking  its  expression — 
had  fastened  on  the  Britannia-metal  tea-pot.  He  shortly 
afterwards  asked  my  host  to  make  him  a  present  of  it ; 
but  the  reply  was  that  he  was  sorry  he  could  not,  as  it 
was  the  only  one  he  had.  "0,"  said  the  Circassian,  "you 
ought  to  give  it  to  me.  If  you  were  to  come  to  my  vil- 
lage, and  took  such  a  fancy  to  anything  as  to  feel  obliged 
to  ask  for  it,  I  should  hand  it  to  you  directly."  But  my 
host  did  not  see  the  force  of  the  argument,  and  still  polite- 
ly refused.  Shortly  afterwards  he  went  out  to  give  some 
orders,  and  the  moment  he  was  absent,  the  Circassian 
winked  at  me,  and  laughingly  took  the  tea-pot,  folded  it 
up  carefully  in  his  handkerchief,  and  put  it  into  his  capa- 
cious coat-pocket.  On  Mr.  Brophy' s  return  I  called  his 
attention  to  what  had  happened.  The  Circassian  treated 
it  as  a  great  joke,  and  evidently  thought  it  so.  He  laughed 
immoderately,  and  patted  my  host  on  the  back,  but  Tie 
still  Icept  the  tea-pot,  and  nemr  gave  it  up.  His  afternoon 
teas  were  destined  to  be  but  a  temporary  enjoyment,  and 
a  few  days  afterwards  I  heard  that  this  bold  and  jovial 
robber-chief  was  no  more.  A  Turkish  force  of  cavalry 
was  passing  through  his  village,  and  upon  his  resisting 
some  orders  transmitted  by  the  officer,  he  was  shot  on  the 
spot. 

^Notwithstanding  their  thieving  propensities  and  other 
faults,  it  is  impossible  to  be  in  their  society  without  a  feel- 
ing of  admiration  for  them  as  a  race.  Whether  they  can 
ever  be  so  tamed  and  educated  as  to  become  industrious 
and  peaceful  subjects,  I  much  doubt ;  but  the  longer  the 
experiment  is  postponed  the  greater  the  danger  to  Turkey. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

DISTEICT   OF  BUEGAS. 

District  of  Burgas — Malaria  Fevers — "  Breakers  aliead  " — Jackals  in  Europe 
— "Yarin"  and  Procrastination — Monastery  of  St.  Atlianasius — Mineral 
Springs — John  in  a  Dilemma — Value  of  Land — A  Circassian  Horse-dealer 
— Yanboli — Ancient  Tumuli — Migration  of  Storks — Scandal  in  Stork- 
land — Pleasures  of  a  Turkish  Khan — Sheep  and  Cows  of  the  District. 

I  SPENT  some  time  in  the  district  of  Burgas,  examining 
the  coast  to  the  south  and  north,  but  I  will  not  weary 
the  reader  by  minute  descriptions  of  this  locality,  as  there 
is  nothing  of  any  importance  to  notice  excepting  the  stra- 
tegical value  of  the  neighborhood,  which  will  be  dealt 
with  in  another  chapter.  The  population  is  principally 
Bulgarian,  some  of  whom  are  Pomaks,  or  Mohammedans, 
but  the  majority  are  Christians.  There  are  also  a  few 
Turkish  villages,  and  many  Circassians,  and  on  the  sea- 
coast  the  purely  Greek  towns  of  Messembria,  Akhioli, 
Sisopolis,  Agazopolis,  and  Vasiliko. 

I  observed  that  the  small  rivers  which  fall  into  the  sea 
along  the  coast  are  for  the  most  part  blocked  at  their 
mouths  during  the  summer  by  the  shingle  thro"\\Ti  up  by 
the  waves,  and  the  bar  thus  formed  throws  back  the  river- 
water,  which  stagnates  in  the  valleys,  and  is  the  cause  of 
much  of  the  malaria  fever  which  is  prevalent  during  the 
autumn  months.  In  one  of  the  rivers  there  was  a  suffi- 
cient body  of  water  to  clear  away  the  shingle  as  it  de- 
bouched from  the  land  to  the  sea,  and  on  inquiry  from  the 
villagers  who  inhabited  the  valley,  I  found  that  it  was 
perfectly  healthy,  while  those  in  the  neighborhood  where 
the  rivers  were  blocked  suffered  severely  from  fever.  It 
is  difficult  to  discover  the  actual  cause  of  these  malaria 

105 


106  TURRET  IN  EUROPE. 

fevers,  wliicli  are  so  prevalent,  not  only  in  Turkey,  but  in 
nearly  the  whole  of  Southern  Europe  during  the  early 
autumn  months. 

Experience  seems  to  point  to  theu'  being  generated  by 
marshes,  and  yet,  at  an  altitude  of  two  thousand  feet 
above  the  sea,  they  are  never  experienced  even  on  the 
edge  of  marshes,  unless  they  are  imported  by  some  indi- 
vidual who  has  brought  the  fever  T\ith  him  from  the  low 
country. 

Again,  I  have  seen  places  which  are  tolerably  elevated 
and  well  di-ained,  and  yet  very  subject  to  fever,  and 
another  locality  not  far  off,  and  apparently  less  favored 
by  nature,  which  is  perfectly  healthy. 

Although  marshes,  \vithout  doubt,  facilitate  the  trans- 
mission of  the  poison  which  produces  the  fever,  I  imagine 
w^e  must  look  further  for  the  real  cause  of  this  troublesome 
effect. 

I  heard  of  a  case  of  an  old  man  who  had  slept  for 
twenty  years  actually  in  a  marsh,  his  miserable  hut  being 
on  a  damp  plot  of  ground  in  the  midst  of  the  rushes,  but 
curiously  enough,  althoiigh  the  neighborhood  was  very 
unhealthy,  he  never  suffered  from  fever  so  long  as  he  slept 
at  home,  but  if  he  went  to  visit  in  the  neighborhood  and 
slept  away  from  home,  he  sickened  immediately. 

The  climate  of  Turkey  generally  is  very  healthy,  espe- 
cially at  high  elevations,  but  in  certain  localities  on  the 
low  grounds,  the  afore-mentioned  fevers  are  prevalent 
during  the  months  of  July,  August,  and  September.  The 
principal  cause  of  the  healthiness  of  the  country  is  to  be 
found  in  the  regular  breezes  which  blow  during  the  sum- 
mer, and  which  are  created  by  the  alternation  of  mountain 
and  plain.  The  nights  are  always  cool,  which  tends  to 
invigorate  the  body  after  the  relaxation  of  the  heat  of  the 
day.  The  diyness  of  the  air  has  also  a  sanitary  effect, 
and  tends  to  prevent  the  poisonous  gases  which  would 
otherwise  be  generated  in  the  neighborhood  of  towns 
where  the  dead  carcasses  of  animals  are  left  to  corrupt 
wherever  they  happen  to  fall. 


A  STOnM.  107 

While  in  the  neighborhood  of  Burgas  I  liad  the  pleas- 
ure of  meeting  Captain  St.  Clair,  late  of  the  21st  Regiment, 
who  is  settled  on  the  sea-coast  just  north  of  Cape  Emineh, 
and  who  is  much  interested,  I  believe,  in  the  sea-fishing 
along  the  coast  between  that  cape  and  Varna. 

He  was  good  enough  to  invite  me  to  visit  his  settlement, 
and  as  his  large  sailing-boat  was  at  anchor  in  the  harbor, 
it  was  agreed  that  we  should  embark  that  afternoon  ;  but 
the  ever-present  genius  of  delay  was  at  work,  and  it  was 
nine  o'  clock  in  the  evening  before  we  were  off.  There  was 
a  light  breeze  and  a  smooth  sea,  and  we  were  soon  gliding 
away  delightfully  before  a  fair  wind,  when  I  noticed  some 
ominous-looking  clouds  to  windward. 

The  boat  was  piled  high  above  the  thwarts  with  empty 
casks,  which  rendered  it  difficult  for  the  two  Greek  sailors 
to  get  at  the  sails  ;  but  the  sea  was  smooth,  and  after  list- 
ening to  some  songs  from  the  Pole  Listopat,  who  formed 
one  of  the  party,  we  all  dropped  off  to  sleep,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  our  two  Argonauts.  But  the  JSTereids  were  at 
work,  and  at  2  a.m.  I  awoke. 

AU  was  pitchy  dark,  but  my  former  experience  of  the 
sea  instantly  told  me  that  a  heavy  squall  was  close  upon 
us,  and  a  vivid  flash  of  lightning  showed  the  white  foam- 
ing waves  on  our  starboard  quarter,  and  black  rocks  close 
upon  our  lee. 

I  seized  the  helm  to  relieve  the  Greek,  who  flew  to  the 
sails,  as  I  roused  St.  Clair.  The  main-sheet  was  by  my 
hand,  and  I  let  it  fly,  when  with  a  rushing  roar  the  storm 
struck  us.  Whether  my  Cheshire  lad  John  had  cast  loose 
a  bag  of  winds  in  the  boat  I  must  leave  to  the  heathen 
gods  to  determine,  but  if  he  did  he  met  with  his  punish- 
ment. This  was  his  first  experience  of  boating  on  the  sea, 
and  he  had  fallen  asleep  in  the  bow  to  the  sound  of  the 
gently-rippling  waves.  He  now  woke  up,  half  buried  in 
water,  the  lightning  flashing,  the  wind  roaring,  while  he 
was  buffeted  about  the  head  with  the  flapping  sail,  and 
his  astonishment  may  be  imagined.  He  thought  his  last 
day  had  come,  and  that  he  had  been  consigned  to  the 


108  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

infernal  regions.  The  boat  was  nearly  buried  in  the  white 
foam,  and  before  the  thrashing  sail  could  be  clewed  up  we 
had  sprung  our  mast.  That  we  were  rushing  upon  our 
fate  and  upon  the  rocks  seemed  highly  probable,  for  we 
were  all  ignorant  of  our  whereabouts. 

The  boat  was  flying  through  the  water,  and  as  the  light- 
ning flashed  we  saw  rocks  and  breakers  within  a  hundred 
yards  to  leeward ;  a  kind  fate  guided  us  safely  through 
the  danger.  Daylight  came  and  showed  ns  that  we  had 
barely  cleared  the  rocky  point  where  stands  the  ancient 
Greek  town  of  Anchialus  (Akhioli).  The  stonn  wore 
itself  out,  and  a  few  hours  afterwards  we  were  safely  at 
anchor  in  the  little  bay  beneath  St.  Clair's  house,  and 
found  ourselves  again  on  terra  fir  ma. 

I  spent  two  pleasant  days  under  his  roof,  and  had  the 
advantage  of  hearing  his  very  powerful  mind  brought  to 
bear  upon  many  of  the  questions  concerning  Turkey  and 
the  East.  The  country  in  his  neighborhood  is  very  hilly, 
and  covered  with  forest  and  brushwood,  and  there  being 
reports  of  wild  boar  and  roe-deer  near  at  hand,  a  drive 
was  organized;  but  althoiigh  a  boar  was  seen  by  the 
beaters,  our  only  bag  was  a  fox  which  happened  to  come 
my  way. 

They  have  a  most  excellent  hound  in  these  parts,  in  ap- 
pearance like  a  cross  between  a  fox-hound  and  a  pointer, 
and  the  next  day  I  was  taken  out  by  a  native  hunter  to 
witness  the  performance  of  one  of  these  animals,  and  the 
sport,  when  there  is  game,  is  not  to  be  despised.  There 
are  drives  through  the  jungle,  and  I  took  up  my  position 
with  my  gun  in  one  of  them,  while  the  hound  was  put 
into  hunt.  "All  is  fish  which  comes  to  his  net,"  and  on 
finding  the  track  of  a  hare,  roe-deer,  boar,  fox,  or  jackal, 
he  immediately  gives  tongue,  and  endeavors  to  turn  the 
animal  toward  the  sportsman.  We  soon  had  a  "find," 
and  with  an  active  pair  of  legs  the  running  backwards  and 
forwards  as  you  heard  the  hound  approaching  different 
parts  of  the  drive  is  sufficiently  exciting  to  make  it  sport. 
My  bag  consisted  of  a  hare  and  a  jackal,  after  a  good  deal 


PRO  CllASTmA  TIOK  109 

of  exercise  in  endeavoring  to  cut  off  a  roe-deer,  wliicli  was 
also  found,  but  it  was  the  roe-deer,  and  he  liad  been  so 
often  hunted  that  he  was  too  knowing  to  break  across  the 
drive.  I  must  beg  naturalists  to  rest  assured  that  I  am 
not  maldng  a  mistake  when  I  say  that  I  shot  a  jackal  in 
Europe.  I  knew  the  animal  well  in  India  and  Mesopo- 
tamia, and  there  are  numbers  of  them  in  certain  parts  of 
Turkey.  I  have  since  met  a  Belgian  naturalist,  who  in- 
sisted upon  it  that  I  was  in  error,  but  I  can  vouch  for  it 
that  the  mistake  lies  with  him. 

Captain  St.  Clair  has  several  Poles  in  his  employ,  who, 
with  himself,  took  part  in  the  Polish  insurrection  of  1863, 
and  witnessed  the  tender  mercy  which  Russia  exhibits 
when  dealing  with  her  own  Christian  subjects.  Here,  as 
in  the  case  of  the  Circassians,  the  bitterness  of  hate  toward 
the  Russians,  engendered  by  scenes  that  have  been  wit- 
nessed, amounts  almost  to  a  madness.  The  very  name  of 
Russia  seems  to  rouse  a  demon  of  revenge,  and  the  flash- 
ing eye,  the  compressed  lip,  the  paling  cheek,  and  the 
silence^  mark  the  volcano  of  human  passion  which  is  but 
slumbering  within. 

St.  Clair  kindly  placed  his  boat  at  my  disposal  to  return 
to  Burgas  by  sea,  which  is  only  six  hours  distant  with  a 
fair  wind. 

The  land  and  sea  breezes  here  are  as  regular  as  clock- 
work, blomng  in  contrary  directions  during  the  twenty- 
four  hours,  with  an  interval  of  about  two  hours'  calm. 
Starting  at  eight  o'clock  in  the  morning,  I  should  have 
had  a  fair  wind,  which  would  have  taken  me  to  Burgas 
the  same  afternoon,  and  it  was  accordingly  so  arranged. 
But  here,  again,  that  painful  procrastination,  which  is  the 
bane  of  the  country,  was  apparent.  There  was  no  reason 
whatever  why  I  should  not  have  started  at  the  time  ap- 
pointed. The  men  were  there,  the  boat  was  there,  and 
the  fair  wind  was  inviting  us  to  come  ;  but  no  !  it  was  not 
to  be,  and  delay  after  delay  took  place,  until  it  was  one 
o'clock  before  I  was  able  to  take  leave  of  my  hospitable 
host,  who  lacked  only  one  element  of  generosity,  and  that 


110  TURKEY  m  EUROPE. 

was  to  "speed  tlie  parting  guest."  The  consequence  was 
that  before  we  had  reached  haK  way  the  wind  ceased.  We 
rocked  about  in  a  calm,  on  a  rolling  sea,  until  I  became 
sea-sick  ;  the  wind  rose  in  the  contrary  direction,  and  we 
were  beating  about  all  night,  and  did  not  arrive  at  Burgas 
until  nine  o'clock  the  next  morning.  This  habit  of  pro- 
crastination seems  to  be  a  disease  in  Turkey  which  attacks 
all  alike,  "whether  he  be  a  stranger  or  bom  in  the  land." 
It  meets  the  traveler  at  every  turn,  and  nearly  drives  him 
mad.  At  first  he  tries  to  battle  against  the  infection,  but 
it  is  invisible,  although  painfully  present,  and  he  seems  to 
fight  only  against  the  wind.  At  last,  in  sheer  despair,  he 
resigns  himself  to  his  fate,  and  listens  with  equanimity  to 
the  interminable  "Yarin" — to-morrow.  But  the  habit  is 
the  ruin  of  the  country.  It  was  born  during  the  Byzan- 
tine Empire,  and  hastened  its  dissolution,  remaining  after- 
wards as  a  legacy  to  the  Turks. 

At  the  entrance  to  the  Bay  of  Burgas,  there  is  a  con- 
spicuous and  picturesque  rock,  occupied  by  the  monastery 
of  St.  Athanasius,  which  is  presided  over  by  a  Greek 
bishop.  I  determined  to  visit  this  romantic  Isle,  and,  ac- 
companied by  Mr.  Brophy,  took  boat,  and  arrived  there 
just  after  dusk.  We  met  the  portly  old  bishop  on  tlie 
landing  with  several  people  of  both  sexes,  and  were  soon 
ushered  into  a  comfortable  room  in  the  monastery,  a 
quaint,  rambling  old  building,  perched  on  the  top  of  the 
rock,  about  two  hundred  feet  above  the  sea.  It  was  a 
lovely  moonlight  night  in  summer,  and  the  views  were 
charming  from  the  open  windows,  which  looked  down 
into  the  sea  and  rocks  below. 

The  old  bishop  sat  in  one  corner  of  the  divan  near  a 
bell,  which,  when  pulled,  seemed  to  have  the  magic  effect 
of  instantly  producing  a  servant  with  good  cheer.  First 
sherbet,  then  coffee,  then  most  excellent  mne,  then  wine 
again,  until  I  felt  that  if  this  went  on  much  longer  I  should 
be^gin  to  sing  "The  Monks  of  Old,"  and  tempt  the  jovial 
old  bishop  to  join  in  the  chorus,  and  thus  bring  scandal 
uiDon  his  ecclesiastical  establishment.     I  therefore  retired 


MINERAL  SPRINGS.  HI 

to  bed,  TvMcli  consisted  of  a  cushioned  divan  iii  another 
room,  and  I  was  soon  hilled  to  sleep  by  the  sound  of  the 
rippling  waves.  The  rock  under  my  windows  had  some- 
what the  form  of  a  boat,  and  there  is  a  legend  which  as- 
serts that  it  once  belonged  to  a  pirate  who  attacked  the 
monastery,  but  the  moment  the  boat  touched  the  sacred 
land  it  was  turned  into  stone,  and  has  there  remained 
ever  since  as  a  monument  of  the  retribution  which  will 
surely  follow  any  who  shall  dare  to  attempt  a  similar 
sacrilege. 

Turkey  in  Europe  is  rich  in  hot  mineral  springs,  which 
the  Romans  did  not  fail  to  recognize  for  their  curative 
properties,  and  built  over  them  most  spacious  baths,  which 
are  still  in  excellent  preservation. 

There  is  one  at  Lija,  near  Burgas,  which  I  visited,  and 
found  the  temperature  as  much  as  120  deg.  of  Fahrenheit. 
Tlie  effect  of  the  bath  on  the  skin  is  to  make  it  beautifully 
soft  and  velvety,  and  I  commend  the  study  of  the  chemi- 
cal substances  in  the  water  to  Madame  Rachel  and  her 
followers. 

My  lad  John  bore  our  rough  life  very  well  on  the  whole, 
and  never  grumbled  ;  but  it  is  astonishing  how  helpless 
people  are  who  have  never  been  accustomed  to  leave  the 
daily  routine  of  home  life.  On  one  occasion  we  were  in 
light  marching  order,  and  had  nothing  with  us  but  the 
clothes  we  wore,  and  having  halted  for  the  night  at  a  very 
pretty  spot  where  a  river  met  the  sea,  we  picketed  the 
horses  and  lay  down  on  the  ground  to  sleep.  We  were 
on  short  rations  that  night,  and  had  only  a  little  dry  bread 
for  dinner,  and  John  did  not  look  particularly  happy. 
Sleeping  on  the  bare  ground  is  all  very  well  for  the  fii'st 
half -hour  or  so ;  you  wrap  your  cloak  around  you,  and 
think, "  "What  do  people  want  with  beds  ? "  and  fall  asleep. 
Presently,  however,  you  have  a  dream  of  being  pinched 
and  bruised,  and  awake  to  find  that  you  are  made  up  of 
bones  and  angles,  which  are  sore,  and  that  the  softness  of 
a  bed  is  not  such  a  useless  invention  after  all. 

I  can  advise  a  sleex)er  on  such  occasions  to  scrape  holes 


112  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

in  tlie  ground  to  receive  tlie  larger  projecting  parts  of  Ms 
body,  as  it  saves  a  multitude  of  bruising  dreams,  and  con- 
duces to  rest.  In  the  morning  I  awoke  at  daybreak,  gave 
John  a  shake,  and  went  down  to  the  river,  only  thirty 
yards  off,  which  I  chose  for  a  wash  in  preference  to  the 
sea,  which  was  the  same  distance  from  me. 

I  afterwards  went  exploring,  and  came  upon  a  native 
with  a  few  small  fish,  which  I  secured  for  breakfast.  On 
my  return  I  found  John  still  sitting  up  on  his  earthy 
couch,  and  staring  into  vacancy,  disconsolate  and  sleepy. 

"  Come,  come,  John,"  I  said,  "jump  up,  jump  up,  and 
wash  yourself,  and  make  a  fire  to  cook  these  fish  ! "  The 
lad  slowly  gathered  himself  up,  and  paused  in  doubt.  I 
saw  that  he  had  something  on  his  mind,  and  presently  he 
walked  slowly  up  to  me  and  gravely  said,  "  Please,  sir, 
where  can  I  get  some  water  ? "  "  Well,  John,"  I  replied, 
there  is  the  sea,  and  there  is  the  river  ;  and  if  that  is  not 
enough  water  for  your  morning  ablutions,  I  am  afraid  I 
cannot  provide  any  more." 

The  fact  was,  there  was  no  basiu,  soap,  and  towel,  and 
it  never  seemed  to  strike  the  lad  that  he  could  go  down  to 
the  river,  and  use  a  little  sand  for  soap,  and  the  tail  of  his 
coat  for  a  towel.  At  first  it  was  the  same  thing  with  food : 
he  could  not  eat  things  which  afforded  me  a  hearty  meal. 
There  is  an  excellent  country  cheese  made  out  of  sheep's 
milk,  which,  with  a  loaf  of  bread  (which  is  always  to  be  had 
at  any  village  in  Turkey),  makes  really  a  very  good  dinner, 
if  you  cannot  get  anything  else ;  but  it  was  not  like  his 
beloved  Cheshire,  and  for  some  time  John  could  not  touch 
it.  He  afterwards  learned  to  rough  it  as  well  as  any  one, 
and  made  a  most  excellent  servant,  and  he  is  now  installed 
on  my  fann  in  Macedonia,  as  superintendent  of  the  Eng- 
lish ploughs. 

The  purchase  value  of  land  in  Turkey  varies  in  a  most 
extraordinary  manner,  and  seems  to  bear  no  relation  to 
the  interest  on  the  capital  which  it  will  pay. 

In  the  town  of  Burgas,  building  land  cannot  be  bought 
under  five  or  six  shillings  a  square  yard,  whUe  in  the 


VALUE  OF  LAND.  113 

neighboring  country  it  can  be  had  for  the  same  number  of 
shillings  per  acre.  Then  again,  further  inland^  by  Eskl 
Zaghra — where  the  soil  is  no  richer — farm  land  cannot  be 
had  for  £10  per  acre.  All  depends  upon  local  circum- 
stances, such  as  population,  etc.,  etc.  ;  and  the  day  will 
come  when  large  fortunes  will  be  made  in  Turkey  by 
holders  of  large  estates,  which  are  sure  to  rise  in  value  as 
the  country  becomes  opened  up  by  railways  and  roads  of 
communication. 

I  had  finished  my  explorations  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Burgas,  and  commenced  to  make  my  preparations  for  my 
inland  Journey.  I  could  not  get  any  information  from 
Mr.  Brophy  or  Captain  St.  Clair  regarding  the  country 
beyond  Kezanlik,  and  they  strongly  urged  me  not  to  at- 
tempt the  further  journey,  as  the  danger  from  brigands 
was  very  great,  and  they  could  not  answer  for  my  life ; 
but  I  had  learned  from  the  experience  of  former  travels 
that  brigands  seldom  think  of  you  if  you  do  not  think  of 
tliem,  and  that  to  turn  back  on  report  of  danger  would 
soon  limit  a  trip  to  a  very  small  area. 

I  had  purchased  a  very  good  little  horse  for  myself,  at 
a  cost  of  £8,  but  had  difficulty  in  finding  another  for  my 
servant,  John.  Brophy  said  that  the  Circassians  generally 
had  horses  for  sale ;  and  he  kindly  sent  a  messenger  to 
our  friend  the  "knight  of  the  tea-pot,"  who  sent  back 
word  that  he  knew  of  a  horse  about  twenty  miles  off ; 
that  he  should  send  orders  at  once  for  it  to  be  at 
Djeverli  by  the  next  morning,  ready  for  my  start ;  and 
that  I  must  pay  the  man  whatever  he  asked  for  the  ani- 
mal. The  next  morning  arrived.  I  had  hired  pack- 
horses  to  carry  my  tents  and  baggage,  but  no  horse  had 
come  for  John. 

Brophy  had  kindly  offered  to  accompany  me  on  my 
travels  as  far  as  Kezanlik,  and  mounted  John  on  one  of 
his  own  animals  until  I  might  be  able,  at  some  of  the 
towns  we  passed  tlirough,  to  pick  up  another  horse. 

We  were  in  the  saddle  and  just  leaving  the  yard,  when 
a  mounted  figure  appeared  in  the  distance,  riding  at  full 
8 


114  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

gallop  in  our  direction  and  leading  a  grey  horse  ;  and  in  a 
few  minutes  a  fine  young  Circassian  dashed  up,  and  said, 
"Here  is  your  horse,  and  his  price  is  £6  10s."  I  dis- 
mounted, felt  the  animal's  legs,  which  were  satisfactory, 
paid  the  money,  transferred  the  English  saddle  and  John 
to  his  back,  and  the  result  was  that  he  was  immediately 
kicked  off. 

I  changed  animals,  and  after  a  few  playful  kicks,  we 
were  off  on  our  travels.  On  after  reflection,  I  began  to 
think  that  I  was  the  owner  of  stolen  goods  in  the  form  of 
that  grey  horse,  and  that  our  Circassian  friend  was  a 
clear  £6  10s.  in  pocket  by  the  transaction ;  but  let  us 
hope  not. 

Our  first  day's  ride  was  to  Yanboli,  on  the  river  Tundja, 
by  way  of  Kamabat. 

The  latter  town  would  be  an  important  military  post  as 
the  left  advanced  guard  of  an  army  intrenched  at  Burgas, 
whilst  the  right  occupied  Aidos.  It  is  a  lively  town, 
with  shops  painted  in  brilliant  colors  ;  and  amongst  them 
the  English  words  "Colman's  Mustard"  were  conspic- 
uous. A  fine  stone  clock  tower  was  being  erected  ;  and  I 
was  told  that  the  clock  was  ordered  from  Dent,  in  London. 

In  traveling  in  Turkey,  distance  is  always  estimated  by 
time  instead  of  space,  and  one  place  is  said  to  be  so  many 
hours  from  another.  This  is  sometimes  very  puzzling,  as 
the  imagination  of  different  individuals  as  to  the  speed  at 
which  a  horse  travels  varies  to  a  considerable  degree.  The 
proper  estimate  is  the  distance  a  keradjee  horse — a  pack 
animal — can  travel  with  his  load  in  an  hour  when  doing 
his  day's  journey,  and  this  may  be  taken  at  three  miles. 
After  leaving  Karnabat,  the  first  hour  of  our  journey  lay 
over  rolling  uplands  devoid  of  trees,  but  with  here  and 
there  some  oak  scrub.  We  then  descended  into  a  flat 
basin  a  few  miles  broad,  stretching  away  in  front  as  far  as 
the  eye  could  reach,  and  flanked  on  the  right  by  the  Bal- 
kan range,  and  on  the  left  with  rolling  uplands.  It  was 
on  the  19th  of  August,  and  the  heat  was  excessive.  Along 
this  plain  we  passed  as  many  as  forty  large  tumuli  scat- 


MONUMENTAL  TUMULI.  115 

tered  here  and  tliere,  singly  and  in  groups  of  two  and 
three.  It  seems  unquestionable  that  these  monuments 
are  ancient  burial-places  ;  and,  if  they  are  connected  with 
the  battle-field,  it  points  to  the  strategical  importance, 
even  in  ancient  days,  of  this  plain,  which  must  have  re- 
ceived the  armies  as  they  debouched  from  the  Balkan. 
Tliese  tumuli  are  found  over  the  whole  of  Turkey,  as  well 
as  in  other  parts  of  Europe  and  Asia;  and  they  must 
have  been  adopted  as  monumental  burial-places  over  an. 
immense  extent  of  time.  They  are  of  three  classes,  of 
different  periods :  in  the  earliest  are  found  remains  of 
stone  implements,  together  with  human  bones  ;  in  the  sec- 
ond gold  and  silver  ornaments ;  and  in  the  third,  and  com- 
paratively recent  class,  there  are  iron  imjplements.  Some 
cover  a  circular  wall,  into  which  the  human  remains  were 
thrown.  There  is  one  of  these  near  the  plains  of  Troy, 
which  is  filled  to  the  top  with  calcined  human  bones ; 
while  another  in  the  same  district  was  found  to  contain 
large  earthenware  jars,  in  each  of  which  there  was  a 
skeleton. 

As  we  approached  the  low  hills,  which  are  covered  with 
vineyards  and  fruit  trees  for  miles  around  Yanboli,  I  ob- 
served literally  thousands  of  large  birds,  which  proved  on 
closer  inspection  to  be  storks  preparing  for  their  migra- 
tion for  the  winter.  These  birds  appear  ia  the  spring,  and 
disappear  in  the  autumn,  as  regularly  as  the  swallows,  and 
their  lives  are  respected  in  every  part  of  the  world  which 
they  patronize.  Their  habits  are  most  peculiar  and  amus- 
ing, and  they  have  a  way  of  clapping  their  beaks  together, 
which  is  exactly  like  vigorous  human  applause.  As  we 
rode  through  the  groves  of  fruit  trees,  which  were  cov- 
ered by  these  birds,  we  were  applauded  right  and  left  to 
such  an  extent  that  it  was  quite  a  triumphal  march.  A 
story  is  told  of  a  goose  egg  having  been  surreptitiously 
placed  in  a  stork's  nest,  and  which  in  due  course  was 
hatched ;  but  the  arrival  and  uncouth  appearance  of  the 
"little  stranger"  created  the  utmost  consternation  among 
the  straight-laced  stork  society,  and  scandal  was  rife. 


116  TURKEY  IN  EUEOPE. 

A  committee  was  appointed  to  examine  into  tlie  matter, 
and  a  council  was  lield  round  the  stork's  nest.  Judging 
by  tlie  "general  applause,"  a  unanimous  decision  was 
soon  arrived  at ;  and  to  show  that  such  peccadilloes  could 
not  possibly  be  permitted  in  stork  society,  the  "little 
stranger"  was  gobbled  up,  and  the  supposed  mother 
stork  was  pecked  to  death. 

It  was  dark  when  we  arrived  at  the  large  khan  at 
Yanboli.  There  is  a  family  likeness  among  all  Turkish 
khans :  a  large  paved  yard,  surrounded  by  buildings, 
with  a  broad  open  veranda  on  the  first  floor  and  on  the 
side  which  looks  into  the  yard.  You  enter  by  a 
large  gateway,  surmounted  by  a  room,  over  which  vines 
climb  prettily  and  look  into  the  windows.  On  the  right 
is  a  coffee  and  pot-house,  with  a  large  open  but  covered 
dais  adjoining  it.  The  sleeping  rooms  are  ranged  along 
the  veranda,  and  are  entirely  devoid  of  furniture  of  any 
kind ;  the  stables  are  immediately  below,  and  the  odor 
from  pack  animals,  which  are  never  groomed,  and  which 
are  too  frequently  covered,  poor  beasts!  with  sores,  is 
something  which  must  be  smelled  to  be  appreciated.  The 
ride  of  forty  miles  on  one  horse  in  a  very  hot  sun  was 
conducive  to  hunger ;  but  an  interminable  time  elapsed 
before  a  large  dish  of  some  kind  of  stewed  meat  made  its 
appearance.  Hunger  is  an  excellent  sauce,  and  I  thought 
the  stew  very  good  ;  but  I  refrained  from  asking  of  what 
it  was  made,  as  I  remembered  the  story  of  the  English- 
man who,  stopping  at  an  inn  in  France,  and  not  knowing 
a  word  of  French,  had  eaten  largely  of  a  dish  which  he 
thought  most  excellent,  and  came  to  the  conclusion  that  it 
must  be  a  preparation  of  duck ;  but  to  set  his  mind  at  rest 
he  beckoned  to  the  gargon,  and  pointing  to  the  dish  said 
interrogatively,  "  Quack,  quack  ? "  whereupon  the  ^I'aT'poTi 
shook  his  head,  and  replied,  "Bow,  wow."  I  retired  to 
one  of  the  small  sleeping-rooms,  and  lay  down  upon  a 
stone  bench,  with  a  dirty  looking  cushion  as  a  pillow ;  but 
no  sooner  had  my  head  touched  it  than  my  face  was 
creeping  with  what  I  thought  were  large  ants.     I  jumped 


YANBOLL  117 

up,  and  seized  the  candle  to  inspect  them,  when — oh,  hor- 
ror !  they  were  bugs,  in  hundreds  ;  with  heads  erect,  and 
defiant  ah-,  they  went  rampaging  about,  as  though  rejoic- 
ing over  their  expected  feast.  Happy  thought !  I  had^ 
some  Keating' s  Insect  Powder,  and  with  revengeful  glee  I 
scattered  a  whole  handful  of  the  fatal  powder  amongst 
them,  expecting  to  see  the  instantaneous  death  of  my 
enemies ;  but  not  at  all — these  hardy  carnivora  rather 
seemed  to  like  it,  and  so  I  rushed,  sickened  and  defeated, 
from  the  room.  But  where  to  sleep  ?  that  was  the  ques- 
tion ;  for  sleep  I  must,  as  we  had  a  long  journey  before 
us  the  next  day.  I  tried  a  bench  in  the  pot-house,  but 
"they"  were  there  also.  The  yard  was  full  of  my  old 
enemy,  the  talegas,  or  Turkish  carriages,  but  they  were 
stationary,  and  at  rest,  so  I  jumped  into  one,  and  rolled 
myself  up  in  some  hay,  and  tried  to  sleep.  The  hay  was 
full  of  fleas,  but  I  rather  liked  them  by  comparison; 
and  thinking  what  delightfully  active  and  industrious 
little  animals  they  were,  I  fell  asleep. 

I  did  not  awake  until  past  seven  o'clock,  and  when  I  sat 
up  in  the  carriage,  I  discovered  that  all  the  other  talegas 
had  departed,  and,  lilve  Mr.  Pickwick  in  his  wheelbarrow, 
I  was  alone  in  the  yard. 

But  not  alone,  for  a  young  Turk  was  sitting  patiently 
by  the  talega,  and  upon  seeing  me  awake  he  came  politely 
forward,  and  "hoping  that  I  had  enjoyed  my  rest,  would 
I  now  allow  him  to  have  his  carriage  ? " 

I  found  that  the  poor  man,  having  a  long  journey  be- 
fore him,  had  intended  to  leave  at  five  o'clock  in  the 
morning,  but  finding  a  snoring  Englishman  in  his  car- 
riage, he,  with  the  courtesy  and  jjatience  which  are  so 
characteristic  of  his  race,  sat  down  until  he  awoke. 

Yanboli  is  a  thriving  town  of  about  ten  thousand  in- 
habitants, and  situated  on  the  muddy  river  Tundja,  which 
is  here  about  fifty  yards  broad,  and  at  this  dry  season  had 
sunk  so  low  that  it  was  easily  fordable.  The  banks  are 
high,  and  it  was  evidently  a  very  deep  and  important 
river  when  in  flood.    It  is  crossed  by  a  good  wooden 


118  TURKEY  m  EUROPE. 

bridge,  wliich  leads  to  tlie  railway  station  distant  about 
a  mile. 

The  valley  of  the  Tundja  is  one  of  the  two  routes  an 
army,  after  passing  the  Balkan,  would  have  to  take  in  ad- 
vancing upon  Constantinople,  the  other  being  the  Maritza 
valley. 

The  whole  of  the  neighboring  district  of  YanboU  is  a 
com-gro\A'ing  country,  and  until  lately  the  agricultural 
produce,  together  with  the  wool,  was  carried  to  Burgas 
for  shipment ;  but  the  opening  of  the  railway  to  Con- 
stantinople has  diverted  the  traffic,  and  Yanboli  is  now 
rising  in  importance  at  the  expense  of  Burgas.  The  sheep 
of  this  district  are  small,  but  they  produce  the  best  wool 
which  is  to  be  found  in  Turkey  ;  however,  that  is  not  much 
in  their  praise,  as  the  wool  generally  is  coarse  and  kempy. 
The  majority  of  these  sheep  are  of  a  light  brown  color, 
and  more  resemble  the  Welsh  breed  in  form  than  any 
other  in  this  country.  The  mutton  would  be  very  good  if 
it  were  not  that  all  male  sheep  are  killed  as  rams. 

The  cattle  are  very  handsome,  but  small,  and  the  cows 
give  very  little  milk.  They  are  all  of  one  color,  and  look 
like  well-bred  Aldemeys  ;  but  they  are  more  hardy  than 
those  delicate  animals. 

The  horses  are  small,  wiry  little  animals,  with  great 
powers  of  enduranbe,  and  I  noticed  that  their  feet  were 
particularly  good.  I  can  only  account  for  this  by  the 
method  of  shoeing,  which  is  simply  an  iron  plate  with  a 
round  hole  in  the  centre,  attached  to  the  foot  with  five 
nails.  The  roads  are  very  rough,  but  it  is  exceptional  to 
see  a  lame  horse.  The  w^orking  cattle  and  buffaloes  are 
shod  in  a  similar  manner. 

Yanboli  possesses  an  excellent  market ;  and  at  this 
season  of  the  year  the  piles  of  melons,  pears,  cucumbers, 
and  large  green  capsicums,  which  lay  at  the  foot  of  the 
Oriental  houses,  covered  with  vines  bearing  rich  clusters 
of  grapes,  produced  a  very  artistic  effect. 

Our  next  day's  journey  was  to  Slivmia,  about  twenty 
miles  off,  and  the  seat  of  a  Liva,  or  district  next  in  impor- 


EMOTIONAL  JUDGMENT.  119 

tance  to  a  viliiiet.  And  as  we  shall  now  be  brouglit  into 
contact  with,  the  Turks,  and  shall  afterwards  leave  the 
neighborhood  of  British  consuls,  and  plunge  into  that 
unhappy  part  of  the  country  which  has  since  been  the 
scene  of  all  the  massacres  and  bloodshed  which  have  so 
shocked  humanity,  it  may  not  be  uninteresting  to  dwell 
for  a  time  upon  the  circumstances  which  have  brought 
the  Osmanlis  to  this  fair  land,  and  which  give  them  the 
right  to  govern. 

It  is  only  by  refreshing  our  memory  with  a  brief  history 
of  the  Turks  that  we  can  place  ourselves  in  a  position  to 
judge  fairly  of  the  difficulties  of  government  which  lie  in 
their  path.  When  sweeping  assertions,  prompted  by 
either  emotional  or  party  feeling,  thrust  away  the  whole 
of  this  fine  nation  to  a  distance  which  is  without  the  pale 
of  humanity,  it  suggests  to  those  who  know  the  people 
intimately  an  amount  of  injustice  and  even  cruelty  which 
can  only  be  the  product  of  irregulated  reason. 

It  is  true  that  emotional  feeling  is  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  mechanisms  in  the  complicated  and  mysterious 
machinery  which  regulates  human  action,  and  that  with- 
out it  the  heart  of  man  would  be  but  a  stone  ;  but  it  must 
form  a  part  and  not  the  whole  of  that  machinery,  other- 
wise it  loses  force  by  irregularity  of  movement. 

The  introduction  of  telegraphs  and  railways  to  the 
greater  part  of  Europe  within  the  last  few  decades  has 
produced  a  great  change  in  our  estimate  of  the  relation 
between  time  and  space ;  and  the  result  is  a  rapidity  of 
thought  and  a  corresponding  rapidity  of  action  which 
gives  a  like  velocity  to  the  expectation  that  our  wishes 
must  be  immediately  realized.  In  the  present  day  there 
is  time  to  think,  but  very  little  time  to  reason ;  and 
yesterday  is  forgotten  in  the  thought  of  to-morrow.  The 
inventions  which  have  produced  this  rapidity  of  thought 
and  action  have  barely  arrived  in  Turkey,  and  she,  there- 
fore, requires  time  before  she  can  be  expected  to  rush 
along  the  rapid  stream  of  progress  which  is  sweeping  over 
Europe. 


120  TURKEY  m  EUROPE. 

If  we  are  to  judge  fairly  of  Turkey  as  slie  is,  and  to 
dictate  her  course  of  action,  we  must  carry  back  our 
thoughts  to  our  own  history  a  hundred  years  ago,  and 
ask  ourselves  what  would  have  been  the  amount  of  misery, 
ruin,  and  bloodshed  which  would  have  been  produced 
among  our  own  people  if  the  experiment  had  been  at- 
tempted of  suddenly  forcing  upon  them  a  complete  change 
in  their  social  and  religious  customs  ? 


CHAPTER   VII. 

THE  TUEKS. 

Their  Origin — "Western  Emigration — Various  Tribes — Their  Slavery — Tlieir 
Komad  Life — Wise  Counsel — Their  Religion — Persian  Rivals — Tura  and 
Arya — Babel — The  Golden  Age — Mahmoud  Ghaznivide — The  Race  of 
Seljuk — A  Quiver  of  Sultans — Togrul  Beg — Alp  Arslan — The  Roum 
Dynasty — Turkish  Cavalry — The  Crusaders — The  Tartars  under  Genghis 
Khan — The  Seljuldan  Turks— Soliman  Shah — Ertoghrul  and  his  choice 
— His  son  Othman — Sultan  Orchan  allies  himself  with  Cantacuzenus — 
Death  of  Soliman  and  succession  of  Amurath — Origin  of  the  Janizaries 
— Timour  and  Sultan  Bajazid — Battle  of  Angora — Ambition  of  Timour. 

A  CCORDING  to  the  liistorian  Aboii'lgazi  Balidur- 
-^-^  Khan,  the  Turks  are  descended  from  Turk,  the 
eldest  son  of  Japhet,  and  are  of  the  same  primitive  stock 
as  the  Tartars  and  Mongols.  "But  as  in  gazing  at  the  sun 
the  eyesight  becomes  dazzled  by  the  brightness,  so  does 
the  mind  become  confused  when  it  attempts  to  regard  the 
brilliancy  of  the  origin  of  this  illustrious  race." 

The  Turks  were  one  of  the  five  nomadic  races  which 
comprised  the  Turanian  family  of  men.  Some  of  the 
numerous  tribes  which  formed  this  race  have  been  erro- 
neously called  Tartars  ;  but  the  latter  people  were  more 
nearly  allied  to  the  Mongolians  than  the  Turks. 

From  the  land  of  Tura,  the  Turkish  tribes  spread  out 
as  far  as  the  Lena  on  the  north  (where  they  are  still 
represented  by  the  Yakuts),  to  the  Black  Sea,  to  the 
Oxus,  beyond  the  Caspian,  and  to  Asia  Minor. 

They  were  known  to  the  Chinese  by  the  name  of  Hiong- 
nu  and  also  Tu-kiu,  from  which  the  name  Turk  is  sup- 
posed to  be  derived.  These  Hiong-nu  formed  an  empii'e, 
206  B.C.,  west  of  China;  and  after  nearly  three  hundred 

121 


122  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

years  of  warfare  tliey  were  defeated  by  the  Cliuiesej  and 
split  lip  into  a  northern  and  soutliem  empire. 

The  Southerns  afterwards  united  with  the  Chinese,  and 
drove  their  ITorthern  cousins  away  from  their  lands 
amongst  the  Altai  mountains ;  and  this  is  supposed  to 
have  been  the  cause  of  the  first  inroad  of  the  Turks  upon 
Europe,  and  they  probably  represent  the  ancestors  of  the 
Huns  and  Avars. 

In  the  beginning  of  the  third  century  the  Mongols  and 
Tungusians  attacked  the  Southern  Turks,  and,  driving 
them  from  their  territories,  created  the  second  western 
migration.  These  various  tribes  are  now  to  be  found  in 
the  Turcomans  east  and  west  of  the  Caspian ;  in  the  Us- 
beks  of  Bokhara,  who  are  partly  Finn;  in  the  Nogai, 
north  of  the  Black  Sea  and  west  of  the  Caspian ;  the 
Bazianes  and  the  Kumiiks  of  the  Caucasus  ;  the  so-called 
Tartars  of  Siberia ;  the  Bashkirs  of  Russia,  who  are  partly 
Mongol ;  the  Kirghis  of  Kashgir ;  the  Youruks  and  Osman- 
lis  of  Asia  Minor  and  Turkey  in  Europe. 

After  the  dispersion  of  the  Southern  Hiong-nu,  some  of 
the  Turkish  tribes  became  slaves  to  the  great  khan  of  the 
Geougen,  and  in  the  golden  mountains  of  Altai  were  em- 
ployed as  forgers  of  iron  and  makers  of  weapons  of  war. 
It  is  from  these  men  that  the  Turks  of  Europe  can  claim 
their  origin.  From  being  makers  of  arms,  they  soon 
learned  to  use  them  with  such  terrible  effect  that,  under 
their  first  leader,  Bertezema,  they  cast  off  the  yoke  which 
pressed  upon  them,  and,  scattering  their  oppressors  to  the 
winds,  established  their  royal  camp  in  the  golden  moun- 
tains. 

The  advantages  of  their  nomadic  life  are  well  depicted 
in  the  advice  given  by  a  counselor  to  one  of  the  succes- 
sors of  Bertezema,  urging  him  not  to  invade  China.  "  The 
Turks,"  he  said,  "are  not  equal  in  number  to  one-hun- 
dredth part  of  the  inhabitants  of  China.  If  we  balance 
their  power  and  elude  their  armies,  it  is  because  we  wan- 
der without  any  fixed  habitations,  in  the  exercise  of  war 
and  hunting.    Are  we  strong  ?    We  advance  and  conquer. 


TURKS.  123 

Are  we  ifeeble  ?  "We  retire  and  are  concealed.  Should  the 
Turks  confine  themselves  within  the  walls  of  cities,  the 
loss  of  a  battle  would  be  the  destruction  of  their  empu'e. 
The  '  bonzes '  preach  only  patience,  humility,  and  the  re- 
nunciation of  the  world.  Such,  0  King !  is  not  the  religion 
of  heroes," 

This  breathes  the  genuine  spirit  of  the  Turanian  race, 
and  well  exemplifies  the  roving  character  of  the  Turkish 
Court. 

Their  religion,  prior  to  their  conversion  to  Mohammed- 
anism, was  a  mixture  of  the  doctrines  of  Zoroaster  and 
the  traditions  of  their  ancestors.  They  had  their  priests, 
and  sung  rude  hymns  in  worship  of  the  air,  fire,  water, 
and  the  earth,  but  they  sacrificed  to  the  supreme  dei^. 
As  might  be  expected,  their  laws  were  unwritten,  and  of 
a  general  character,  the  minor  details  being  probably  laid 
down  by  the  order  of  heads  of  tribes.  Yet  there  were 
general  principles  which  they  all  acknowledged,  and 
which  were  rigorously  and  impartially  executed.  Theft 
was  punished  by  a  tenfold  restitution  ;  adultery,  treason, 
and  murder,  with  death.  No  chastisement  was  consid- 
ered too  severe  for  the  crime  of  cowardice.  We  have  here 
all  the  elements  of  a  stem  justice,  and  these  main  princi- 
ples of  morality,  added  to  the  free  and  independent  life 
of  waiTior  shepherds,  were  the  cause  of  that  lofty  and 
chivalrous  character  which  always  attached  to  the  Turks 
as  a  nation. 

The  rich  grazings  of  their  unbounded  pasture-lands  gave 
an  almost  unlimited  supply  of  horses,  and  one  of  their 
armies  alone  numbered  four  hundred  thousand  cavalry. 
This  gives  some  idea  of  the  extraordinary  power  of  these 
tribes  in  former  days,  and  of  the  rapidity  with  which  they 
could  sweep  over  the  land  as  conquerors.  It  was,  in  fact, 
a  nomad  kingdom.  Their  great  rivals  were  the  Persians 
— rivals  in  arms  and  rivals  in  race  and  customs,  and  Tura 
and  Arya  here  stood  face  to  face. 

The  wandering  life  of  the  Turks  was  fitted  for  reflection 
rather  than  study,  and  we  accordingly  find  them  mostly 


124  TURKEY  m  EUROPE. 

ignorant  of  science,  while  tlie  sedentary  habits  of  llie  Per- 
sians placed  tliem  among  the  first  nations  of  the  world  for 
scientific  learning. 

The  Turkish  Empire,  founded  by  Bertezema,  increased 
under  his  successors  until  it  burst  by  over-expansion, 
and  was  divided  into  three  kingdoms  ;  and  it  is  with  one 
of  these,  which  held  its  sway  in  the  Golden  Mountains 
of  Altai,  that  we  have  now  to  deal.  The  Turanian  and 
Aryan  streams  of  emigration,  with  all  their  attendant 
tribes,  were  now  eddying  among  each  other  in  Scythia 
and  the  Caucasus,  and  we  are  told  by  Pliny  that  in  the 
market  of  Dioscurias  no  less  than  one  hundi'ed  and  thirty 
languages  were  spoken. 

This  was  literally  a  golden  age,  for  that  precious  metal 
seemed  to*  form  the  material  for  all  the  furniture  of  the 
great  Turk  Emperor  in  his  nomad  court  of  the  Altai  Moun- 
taiQS  ;  and  we  hear  of  the  great  Disabul  sitting  in  a  chariot 
of  gold,  supported  by  golden  peacocks,  for  which  a  horse 
was  always  kept  ready  harnessed,  in  order  that,  if  His 
Royal  Highness  wished  to  move,  he  might  not  have  the 
trouble  of  walking. 

The  rich  mines  of  Trebizond  and  the  Caucasus  furnished 
the  precious  metal,  which,  with  the  rich  silks  of  China, 
added  to  the  luxury  of  the  age. 

In  the  reign  of  Chosroes,  King  of  Persia,  the  Turks  and 
the  Byzantine  Empire  were  united  against  theu'  common 
enemy,  but  the  more  civilized  Romans  merely  made  use  of 
the  Turks  as  a  temporary  and  useful  weapon.  The  con- 
tempt in  which  the  Turks  held  the  Byzantine  intrigue  was 
manifested  by  the  successor  to  Disabul,  when  in  the  sixth 
century  the  Emperor  Tiberius,  who  proposed  an  invasion 
of  Persia,  sent  ambassadors  to  salute  him. 

With  indignant  anger  the  haughty  monarch  turned  to 
them  and  said,  "  You  see  my  ten  fingers  %  You  Romans 
speak  with  as  many  tongues  ;  but  they  are  the  tongues  of 
deceit  and  perjury.  To  me  you  hold  one  language,  to  my 
subjects  another,  and  the  nations  are  successively  deluded 
by  your  perfidious  eloquence ;  you  precipitate  your  allies 


TURKS.  125 

into  war  and  danger,  you  enjoy  their  labors,  and  you  neg- 
lect your  benefactors.  Hasten  your  return,  and  inform 
your  master  that  a  Turk  is  incapable  of  uttering  or  forgiv- 
ing falsehood,  and  that  he  shall  speedily  meet  the  punish- 
ment he  deserves." 

In  the  middle  of  the  seventh  century  the  prophet  Maho- 
met appeared,  and,  with  his  successors,  spread  his  religion 
with  lightning  rapidity  north,  south,  east,  and  west,  until 
it  rivalled  Christianity  in  its  converts,  and  included  many 
of  the  Turkish  tribes  in  the  number. 

At  the  end  of  the  tenth  century  the  title  of  Sultan  was 
first  conferred  on  Mahmoud,  the  Ghaznivide,  one  of  the 
most  powerful  of  Turkish  princes,  who  then  reigned  in 
the  eastern  provinces  of  Persia,  and  extended  his  domin- 
ions far  into  Hindostan. 

At  this  time  the  Turkish  dynasties  of  the  Tulunides  and 
Akshidides  reigned  in  Palestine,  Syria,  and  Egypt,  while 
the  gi'eat  tribe  of  Seljuk,  with  its  shepherd  warriors,  un- 
der the  name  of  Turcomans,  inhabited  the  district  of 
Bokhara. 

This  warlike  people  quarreled  with  Sultan  Mahmoud 
and  his  son  and  successor,  Massoud,  and  with  their  splen- 
did cavalry — whose  descendants  may  be  seenjn  the  superb 
horses  of  Turkistan  in  the  present  day — they  utterly  de- 
feated him  and  the  Ghaznivide.  The  victorious  Sel- 
jukians  immediately  assembled  to  elect  a  king,  but  among 
so  many  noble  warriors  who  was  to  make  the  choice  ? 

The  difficulty  was  soon  overcome,  and  by  a  plan  which 
made  intrigue  impossible.  A  number  of  arrows  were  suc- 
cessively inscribed  with  the  name  of  a  tribe,  a  family,  and 
a  candidate,  and  gathered  together  in  a  bundle.  To  pre- 
vent all  chance  of  deceit,  it  was  determined  that  the  arrow 
— which  was  pregnant  with  the  fate  of  nations — should  be 
drawn  by  the  hand  of  a  child. 

We  can  picture  these  warlike  chiefs  assembled  around 
the  bundle  of  arrows,  each  thinking  that  another  moment 
might  make  him  the  monarch  of  a  host,  as  he  watched  the 
timid  action  of  the  little  child  who  was  to  decide  his  fate. 


126  TURKEY  IN  E  UROPE. 

Presently  a  wild  shout  proclaimed  that  Togrul  Beg,  who 
was  the  son  of  Michel,  who  was  the  son  of  Seljiik,  who 
was  thirty-fourth  in  lineal  descent  from  the  great  Afra- 
siab,  Emperor  of  Tura,  was  at  once  the  prizeman  and  their 
sultan. 

Seljuk  had  embraced  the  religion  of  Mahomet  when  he 
was  encamped  in  the  neighborhood  of  Samarcand,  and  his 
grandson  Sultan  Togrul  was  conspicuous  for  his  zeal  in 
the  faith.  Each  day  he  repeated  the  five  prayers  which 
are  enjoined  to  the  true  believer,  and  each  week  the  two 
first  days  were  consecrated  to  an  extraordinary  fast, 
and  in  every  conquered  city  a  mosque  was  completed 
before  Togrul  presumed  to  lay  the  foundation  of  a 
palace. 

Togrul  died  without  children,  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  nephew,  Alp  Arslan ;  but  the  immense  dominion  of 
the  Seljukian  throne  was  not  destined  to  be  of  long  dura- 
tion, and  after  the  death  of  Malek  Shah,  son  and  succes- 
sor to  Alp  Arslan,  the  empire  was  disputed  by  his  brother 
and  four  sons,  and  divided  into  three  dynasties,  those  of 
Kerman,  Syria,  and  Roum,  a.d.  1074. 

It  is  with  the  Roum  dynasty  that  we  have  to  deal,  as  it 
embraced  Agia  Minor,  and  was  ruled  by  Sultan  Soliman, 
a  kinsman  of  Alp  Arslan,  who  by  great  tact  had  turned 
the  enmity  of  his  cousin  into  friendship,  and  united  his 
forces  against  the  Greeks. 

It  was  during  the  reign  of  Soliman  that  the  first  Turk- 
ish troops  were  landed  in  Europe,  and  it  came  about  in 
this  way : — During  the  contest  between  Bryennius  and 
Botoniates,  who  represented  the  European  and  Asiatic 
candidates  for  the  Byzantine  Empire  at  Constantinople, 
the  aid  of  Soliman  was  solicited,  and  he  united  the  Cres- 
cent and  the  Cross  by  joining  his  forces  to  those  of  Boto- 
niates. After  the  succession  of  that  monarch,  Sultan  Soli- 
man was  right  royally  entertained  at  Scutari  on  the  Bos- 
phorus,  and  a  body  of  2,000  Turkish  cavalry  were  sent 
across  that  water  as  a  reinforcement  to  the  Byzantine 
forces. 


TURKS. 


127 


'  The  power  of  tlie  Tarks  in  Asia  Minor,  and  the  rapid 
extension  of  the  Mahommedan  faith,  soon  alarmed  all 
Christendom,  and  floods  of  gallant  crusaders,  made  up  of 
the  flower  of  Christian  knights  from  all  parts  of  Europe, 
poured  across  the  Bosphorus,  many  of  them  never  to  re- 
turn. Such  was  the  number  of  these  crusaders  that  the 
Greeks  at  Constantinople  soon  became  alarmed  at  the  in- 
creasing forces  of  their  friends,  and  therefore,  with  the 
cunning  peculiar  to  the  empire,  commenced  intriguing 
with  the  Turks  against  their  Christian  allies,  and  such 
subtle  obstacles  and  difficulties  were  raised  that  the  gor« 
geous  host  which  had  crossed  the  Bosphorus  with  so  much 
pomp  and  giandeur  returned  but  the  ragged  fragment  of 
its  former  self. 

During  the  internal  quarrels  that  distracted  the  Byzan- 
tine empire  and  the  foreign  powers  which  invaded  it,  the 
Turkish  rule  in  Asia  Minor  grew  in  strength,  until  in  the 
thirteenth  century  the  great  Tartar  host,  guided  by  the 
genius  of  Genghis  Khan,  pressed  on  a  wave  of  conquest 
which  swept  over  the  nations  to  the  north,  the  south,  the 
east,  and  west,  until  it  overlapped  Russia,  Hindostan, 
China,  Hungary,  Bulgaria,  and  Asia  Minor. 

The  Seljukian  dynasty  of  Roum  fell  prostrate  before  the 
Tartar  storm,  and  the  power  of  the  Turk  was  crushed,  but 
not  destroyed.  Military  ambition  is  a  potential  force 
which  expends  itself  in  conquest,  and  like  many  another, 
the  kingdom  of  the  Great  Mogul  was  snapped  by  over- 
expansion.  When  it  seemed  certain  that  Europe  would 
be  flooded  by  the  Tartar  cavalry,  the  forces  of  the  Mogul 
were  called  away  to  prop  up  the  empire  on  the  side  of 
Persia,  and  the  nations  breathed  again. 

The  Turks  in  Asia  Minor  began  gradually  to  recover 
from  the  shock,  and  renewed  their  habitual  wars  against 
the  Greeks,  until  the  Sultans  of  Iconium  again  rose  into 
notice. 

The  necessities  of  the  Seljukian  Turks  in  Asia  Minor 
had  reached  their  far  distant  and  now  comparatively 
ancient  home  in  Khorassan,  where  there  still  lived  a  large 


128  TURKEY  m  EUROPE. 

tribe  of  tMs  renowned  race  under  the  ntime  of  Ogliouz 
Turks. 

Actuated,  it  may  be,  by  sympatliy,  or  it  may  be  by 
pressure  from  Tartar  foes,  Soliman  Shall,  chief  of  the 
Oghouz  Turks,  broke,  like  a  rift  from  a  river-bank,  from 
his  native  land,  and  with  four  hundred  families  of  his 
tribe,  headed  by  their  male  warriors,  he  wended  his  way 
towards  Asia  Minor,  to  mingle  with  his  kinsfolk  under 
the  Sultan  Aladdin  of  Iconium. 

Rough  must  have  been  the  way,  and  hard  the  fare  of 
these  immigrant  families,  as  they  tramped  over  mountain 
and  plain,  through  river  and  marsh,  over  the  thousands 
of  miles  which  separated  them  from  their  destination. 
Their  chief,  Soliman  Shah,  was  drowned  in  the  passage  of 
the  river  Euphrates ;  but  his  son,  the  brave  Ertoghrul, 
the  "Right-hearted  Man,"  the  progenitor  of  the  future 
Ottoman  power,  immediately  placed  himself  at  their  head. 
For  weeks  and  months  they  wandered,  until  at  last  they 
approached  their  future  home.  One  day,  Ertoghrul,  with 
his  brave  chiefs  leading  the  van,  had  just  crested  a  tedious 
hill,  and  were  descending  to  the  valley  below,  when  they 
suddenly  found  themselves  in  the  presence  of  two  con- 
tending armies.  Ertoghrul  quickly  formed  his  men  in 
order  of  battle,  and  anxiously  watched  the  fight.  ' '  Which 
side,  Effendim,  shall  we  take?"  asked  his  officers. 
"Yonder  is  the  weakest,"  said  Ertoghrul ;  "  charge,  and 
onward  to  their  rescue."  This  was  the  true  spuit  of 
chivalry,  and  it  has  adorned  the  Turks  throughout  their 
history.  Generosity  had  its  reward,  and  Ertoghrul  dis- 
covered that  the  side  whose  cause  he  had  espoused  and 
won  was  no  other  than  that  of  Sultan  Aladdin  himself. 
Ertoghrul  was  rewarded  by  a  settlement  near  the  shores 
of  the  Euxine,  with  the  title  of  Emir,  and  he  vigorously 
prosecuted  the  war  against  the  neighboring  Greek  settle- 
ments. Such,  at  least,  is  the  account  as  given  by  Mewlana 
Ayas,  who  heard  it  from  the  stirrup-holder  of  Ertoghrul' s 
grandson,  Orchan,  who  heard  it  fi'om  Ertoghrul  himself. 
He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Osman,  or  Othman,  a.d. 


TURKS.  129 

1299,  a  born  military  genius,  and  the  founder  of  tlie  Tuik- 
ish  race  in  Europe.  From  him  comes  their  name  of  0th- 
mans,  or  Ottomans,  or  Osmanlis.  Othman  was  not  only 
a  soldier,  he  was  also  a  statesman.  As  he  conquered  he 
organized,  and  left  a  good  administration  in  his  path, 
thus  securing  the  fruits  of  his  exertions.  He  gathered 
volunteers  as  he  went,  and  organized  them  into  armies, 
and  under  color  of  waging  a  holy  war  against  the  infidels, 
he  infused  a  fanatical  zeal  into  his  troops.  He  formed 
a  regular  army  and  fortified  his  towns,  and  soon  gained 
possession  of  nearly  the  whole  of  Nicomedia  and  Bithy- 
nia.  His  son  Orchan  prosecuted  the  conquests  of  his 
father,  and  gladdened  his  old  age  by  the  news  of  the 
fall  of  Brusa,  which  henceforth  became  the  Asiatic  capital 
of  the  Ottomans. 

Othman  professed  religious  toleration  to  the  Christians 
he  had  conquered,  and  his  dying  words  are  the  springs 
from  which  flow  the  religious  toleration  of  the  Turks  in 
the  present  day.  "My  son,  I  am  dying,  and  I  die  with- 
out regret,  because  I  leave  such  a  successor  as  thou  art. 
Be  Just,  love  goodness,  and  show  mercy.  Give  equal  pro- 
tection to  all  thy  subjects,  and  extend  the  law  of  the 
Prophet.  Such  are  the  duties  of  princes  upon  earth,  and 
it  is  thus  that  they  bring  on  them  the  blessings  of  Hea- 
ven." Othman  gained  such  an  influence  over  the  minds 
of  men  that  he  may  be  said  to  have  reigned  with  the 
greatest  power  after  his  death,  which  took  place  at  an  ad- 
vanced age  in  a.d.  1326.  The  sword  which  he  handled  in 
his  battles,  is  looked  upon  with  sacred  reverence  by  the 
Ottoman  nation,  and  the  act  of  girding  it  upon  each  suc- 
cessive sultan  is  equivalent  to  our  own  coronation  cere- 
mony. 

The  last  counsels,  the  justice  and  moderation  of  Oth- 
man, have  been  transcribed  by  the  Turks  as  a  Royal  Tes- 
tament. 

On  the  death  of  the  Sultan  of  Iconium,  which  took 
place  in  the  year  1300,  Othman  had  assumed  the  title  of 
Sultan,  and  thus  founded  the  line  of  those  despotic  mon- 
9 


130  TURKET  IN  EUROPE. 

arclis  whicli  liave  reigned  in  direct  descent  in  Turkey  in 
Europe  to  the  present  day. 

He  was  succeeded,  as  we  said,  by  his  son  Orchan,  who 
quickly  turned  to  account  and  improved  the  inheritance 
of  military  organization  he  had  received  from  his  father. 
The  regular  army  was  increased,  battering-trains  were 
formed,  and  he  extended  his  sway  to  the  very  banks  of 
the  Bosphorus.  The  office  of  Vizier  was  introduced,  and 
science,  theology,  and  every  branch  of  learning  was  en- 
couraged. It  was  now  that  the  foundations  were  laid  of 
the  naval  power  of  Turkey  which  was  destined  for  such 
great  achievements  in  the  future,  and  three  hundred 
vessels  rode  gaily  in  the  Bay  of  Smyrna. 

The  internal  dissensions  of  the  Greeks  soon  laid  open 
the  door  of  Europe  to  the  entry  of  the  Turks.  In  the 
rebellion  of  Andronicus  the  Younger  against  his  grand- 
father, the  Em^Deror  Andronicus  Palteologus,  Joannes 
Cantacuzenus  took  the  part  of  the  former,  who  was  his 
friend  and  mentor,  and  in  the  troubles  which  ensued  he 
injudiciously  called  in  the  aid  of  his  intimate  friend, 
Umur  Bey,  the  Turkish  Prince  of  Aidin,  who  immedi- 
ately joined  him  with  a  fleet  of  380  vessels  and  an  anny  of 
28,000  men.  "With  these  he  passed  over  to  Europe,  and 
marched  by  the  Hebrus  upon  Demotica,  which  was  be- 
sieged by  the  Bulgarians  and  defended  by  the  Empress 
Irene.  Umur  quickly  defeated  the  Bulgarians,  and  whilst 
encamped  outside  the  town  he  received  the  cordial  thanks 
of  the  empress  for  his  timely  assistance,  and,  at  the  same 
time,  an  invitation,  accompanied  by  costly  presents,  to 
visit  her.  But  here  the  innate  chivalry  of  the  Turk  was 
conspicuous.  In  the  absence  of  his  friend,  Emur  consid- 
ered it  indelicate  to  visit  the  wife,  and  although  it  was  the 
depth  of  winter,  and  the  hardships  of  the  camp  were 
great,  he  remained  camped  outside  the  walls  of  the 
town. 

He  afterwards  selected  2,000  choice  troops,  and  marched 
upon  Servia,  but  was  obliged  to  relinquish  the  campaign 
on  account  of  the  severity  of  the  winter. 


TURKS.  131 

It  is  sad  to  relate  that  an  offer  of  Zx^c/t^/i/^/^  induced 
him  to  withdraw  his  assistance  from  his  friend  Canta- 
cuzenus,  but  it  is  only  fair  to  state  that  his  own  dominions 
were  at  that  time  threatened  by  the  Latins. 

Cantacuzenns  now  hurried  to  a  more  powerful  Turkish 
ally  in  the  Sultan  Orchan,  the  son  of  Othman,  who  had 
been  recommended  to  him  by  his  friend  Umur. 

ISTot  only  were  the  forces  of  Orchan  and  Cantacuzenns 
united,  but  also  their  families,  and  a  relationship  was 
formed  between  the  Greek  and  Ottoman  empires  by  the 
marriage  of  Theodora,  the  daughter  of  Cantacuzenns,  T\ith 
the  Sultan  Orchan. 

N'otwithstanding  this  alliance  the  Ottoman  Prince  after- 
wards took  the  side  of  the  Genoese  of  Constantinople, 
against  his  father-in-law,  but  after  the  conclusion  of  the 
war  Europe  was  evacuated  by  the  Turkish  forces. 

Their  acquaintance  with  the  country  had  evidently  pro- 
duced a  favorable  impression,  and  after  the  abdication  of 
Cantacuzenns  it  was  renewed  under  the  brave  Prince  Soli- 
man,  a  much-loved  son  of  Orchan,  who,  in  friendly  al- 
liance with  the  Emperor,  landed  a  force  in  Thrace,  and 
from  that  day  to  this  the  banner  of  the  Turk  has  remained 
in  Europe. 

Soliman  was  soon  after  killed  by  a  fall  from  his  horse 
while  exercising  with  the  jerld,  a  light  wand,  used  as  a 
javelin,  and  which  is  a  favorite  Arab  pastime.  Such  was 
the  grief  of  the  aged  Sultan,  that  the  death  of  his  favorite 
son  may  be  said  to  have  broken  his  heart,  and  he  died 
A.D.  1360. 

He  was  succeeded  by  Amurath,  another  son,  not  less 
brave  than  his  dead  brother,  and  he  carried  the  Turkish 
banners  over  the  whole  of  Thrace,  fixed  his  capital  at 
Adrianople,  and  an  Ottoman  monarch  for  the  first  time 
reigned  in  Europe. 

He  at  once  pushed  his  conquests  north  of  the  Balkan, 
and  soon  had  possession  of  the  country  from  the  Danube 
to  the  Adriatic,  and  the  great  battle  fought  on  the  plains 
of  Kossova  brought  the  Servians,  the  Bosnians,  the  Bui- 


133  TUllKET  IN  EUR  OPE. 

garians,  and  tlie  Albanians  under  the  dominion  of  the 
Turks. 

It  was  in  the  reign  of  Amurath  that  a  body  of  men  was 
organized,  who,  although  born  Christians,  were  to  be 
educated  to  become  the  terror  of  their  o^vn  race,  the  ally 
of  the  Turk,  and  a  destructive  and  disturbing  element  in 
Europe  for  more  than  400  years. 

By  the  Mohammedan  law  the  Sultan  is  entitled  to  a 
fifth  part  of  the  spoil  and  captives  in  battle,  and  by  the 
advice  of  the  Vizier,  Amurath  was  induced  to  apply  this 
law  by  selecting  the  stoutest  and  most  beautiful  of  the 
captive  Christian  youths,  who  were  educated  in  the 
Mohammedan  religion  and  the  use  of  arms.  This  force 
was  named  by  a  celebrated  dervish,  who,  standing  before 
the  troops,  stretched  forth  his  hand  and  said,  "Let  them 
be  called  Yengi  cheri,"  or  new  soldiers  (Janizaries). 
"May  their  countenance  be  ever  bright!  their  hand 
victorious !  their  sword  keen !  may  their  spear  always 
hang  over  the  heads  of  their  enemies !  and  wheresoever 
they  go  may  they  return  with  a  wliite  *  faceP  The  Jani- 
zaries became  the  flower  of  the  Turkish  troops,  and  it  is 
curious  to  observe  that  the  principal  weapon  \vith  which 
the  Ottomans  gained  their  European  victories  was  made 
of  Christian  metal. 

The  custom  of  filling  their  ranks  from  Christian  captives 
only  was  afterwards  abolished,  and  they  were  taken  from 
the  Christian  subjects  as  youths,  and  educated  in  the 
Mohammedan  religion. 

The  importance  of  this  force  will  be  realized  by  the 
reader  when  it  is  remembered  that  only  Mohammedans 
are  allowed  to  serve  in  the  Ottoman  army,  consequently 
the  drain  by  war  and  disease  upon  the  Mohammedan  pop* 
ulation  was  excessive. 

The  statesmanlike  minds  of  the  early  Ottoman  rulers 
soon  marked  the  difficulty,  and  met  it  by  the  creation  of 
the  Janizaries,  who  had  to  bear  the  brunt  of  most  of  the 
battles.     The  destruction  of  this  force  by  Sultan  Mah- 

*  Shining,  clieerful. 


TUEES.  133 

mond  nearly  five  linndred  years  afterwards,  and  the  neg- 
lect to  carry  out  the  provision  for  recruiting  the  Turkish 
forces  from  the  Christian  population,  must,  if  it  continues, 
eventually  exhaust  the  Ottoman  military  power  by  dry- 
ing up  the  source  from  which  it  springs,  namely,  the 
Mohammedan  population. 

I  will  not  follow  the  reigns  of  successive  sultans,  who 
extended  the  Turkish  conquests  both  in  Asia  Minor  and 
Europe,  and  took  possession  of  Macedonia,  Thessaly  and 
Greece,  until  the  Byzantine  Empire  was  hemmed  in  almost 
to  the  walls  of  Constantinople. 

The  battles  of  Kossova  and  of  Mcopolis  reduced  the 
Slaves  and  Bulgarians  to  Turkish  subjects ;  and  Con- 
stantinople would  have  fallen  sooner  than  it  did  had  it 
not  been  for  the  second  Tartar  wave  of  conquest,  under 
Timour,  which  swept  over  almost  the  same  ground  as  its 
predecessor  under  Genghis  Khan. 

The  Tartar  army  was  sweeping  over  Asia  Minor  when 
Sultan  Bajazid  assembled  all  his  forces,  consisting  of  four 
hundred  thousand  men,  to  resist  it.  The  two  armies  met 
at  Angora  ;  and  the  defeat  of  the  Ottoman  Sultan  which 
followed  may  be  attributed  to  his  overweening  pride  and 
love  of  sport.  While  in  the  presence  of  the  enemy  he 
actually  employed  his  troops  for  a  great  deer  drive  in  the 
forests  and  mountains  about  Angora.  The  able  old  war- 
rior, Timour,  was  not  likely  to  miss  such  a  favorable  oppor- 
tunity ;  and  he  fell  upon  the  Turks  in  their  state  of  dis- 
order, and  signally  defeated  them. 

Such  was  the  ambition  and  confidence  of  Timour,  that 
instead  of  entering  Europe  across  the  Bosphorus,  which 
lay  before  him,  he  foi-med  the  project  of  conquering  Egypt 
and  Africa,  and  of  then  crossing  to  Europe  by  the  Straits 
of  Gibraltar,  and,  after  conquering  that  continent,  to  re- 
turn to  his  Persian  quarters  by  way  of  Russia  ! 

^Yhen  we  consider  the  ground  he  had  already  covered 
in  his  victorious  march,  this  ambitious  design  need  not 
create  sui-prise ;  but  how  insignificant  in  comparison  are 
even  the  conquests  of  Napoleon  in  modem  times ! 


134  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

Fortunately  for  Europe,  the  attention  of  Timour  was 
bent  back  upon  China,  where  he  met  his  death  ;  and  his 
former  conquests  dissolved. 

The  Turks  continued  to  make  good  their  footing  in 
Europe ;  but  the  brightest  gem  of  their  newly  acquired 
kingdom  still  glittered  as  a  much-coveted  prLze  on  the 
shores  of  the  Bosphorus,  and  the  Byzantine  Empire  yet 
lived  in  Constantinople. 


CHAPTER   VIII. 
Turkish  Government. 

Turkish.  Government — Various  Races  under  its  Sway — Character  of  the 
Turkish  Soldier — Feudal  Tenure — Pillars  of  the  State — "  Sublime  Porte  " 
— Pashas  and  Beys — Division  of  Private  Property — Civil  Administration- 
Judicial  Courts — Monasteries  on  Mount  Athos — Pilgrims — Expounders  of 
the  Law,  Civil  and  Religious — Mohammed  II. — Educational  Institutions. 

A  S  the  conquering  Turkish  forces  moved  over  Asia 
-^^  Minor,  and  afterwards  over  what  is  now  called 
Turkey  in  Europe,  they  found  the  land  occupied  then,  as 
now,  by  numerous  races  of  different  religions  and  dif- 
ferent interests  and  customs.  Armenians,  Kurds,  Druses, 
Maronites,  Arabs,  Chaldeans,  Greeks,  Albanians,  Slavs, 
Bulgarians,  Jews,  Wallachians,  Gipsies,  etc.,  all  clamored 
for  due  consideration  as  Turkish  subjects,  and  all  in- 
trigued one  against  the  other. 

If  the  British  House  of  Commons  had  to  legislate  for 
nineteen  Irelands  instead  of  one,  it  would  give  some  idea 
of  the  difficulties  of  government  in  Turkey  ;  and  some  of 
its  members  would  then  perhaps  be  more  Just  in  their 
criticisms,  and  generous  in  their  judgment  on  that  un- 
happy country. 

How  did  the  nomad  Turkish  court  and  army  gather  in 
this  surging  mass  of  human  passions,  and  bring  them 
under  discipline  and  control  ? 

We  must  dismiss  from  our  mind  for  a  time  the  Turkish 
administrators  of  the  present,  and  picture  the  chivalrous 
warriors  of  the  fourteenth  century  in  all  their  pomp  and 
power,  fervid  in  following  the  tenets  of  their  creed,  and 
who  looked  back  with  pride  upon  the  history  of  their 
race,  which  told  in  its  pages  of  a  conquered  area  larger 
than  that  of  Europe.     We  must  picture  tkis  conquering 

135 


136  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

army  with  its  desiDotic  head  proudly  entering  the  land  to 
hold  it,  and  consider  how  they  came  to  restrain  the  con- 
quered races,  and  grow  in  government  until  they  could 
call  them  subjects. 

Where  now  there  is  apathy,  procrastination,  and 
venality — the  poisons  which  destroyed  the  Byzantine 
Empire  and  afterwards  inoculated  the  Turks — there  was 
then  energy,  decision,  and  chivalry.  Where  now  the 
future  rulers  of  the  country  are  educated  under  the 
effeminating  influence  of  the  seraglio,  they  then  studied 
the  art  of  ruling  in  the  command  of  armies  and  in  the 
government  of  provinces.  Wherever  an  army  passed,  it 
could  drop  from  its  ranks  rulers  and  statesmen  ready  to 
govern  by  force  tempered  with  Justice,  instead  of  by  laws 
disfigured  with  venality.  A  nation  may  change  its  char- 
acter, but  not  its  nature,  and  there  is  one  point  in  common 
with  both  the  past  and  the  present,  and  that  is  that  the 
Turkish  rank  and  file,  the  real  pith  of  the  nation,  were 
then,  as  now,  distinguished  for  their  patience,  discipline, 
sobriety,  bravery,  honesty,  and  modesty,*  and  to  these 
qualities  I  may  also  add  that  of  humanity,  although  I 
know  it  will  excite  an  indignant  exclamation  from  many 
at  the  present  moment.  But  look  at  the  Turkish  soldier 
in  private  life,  and  you  find  him  gentle  and  kind  to  chil- 
dren and  women,  and  exceedingly  fond  of  animals.  His 
first  thought  after  a  long  and  tiring  day's  march  is  his 
horse.  As  soon  as  he  has  made  the  animal  comfortable, 
then  he  thinks  of  the  man.  When  he  is  exasperated  by 
what  he  thinks  are  insults  to  his  creed,  he  kills  and  slays 
as  his  teaching  tells  him,  and  he  appears  a  fanatical 
madman ;  but  he  is  then  outside  his  real  nature,  and 
not  within  it.  It  is  but  the  other  day  that  I  saw  thirteen 
thousand  of  these  brave  men  arrive  fresh  from  the  front 
and  all  the  hardships  of  the  Servian  campaign.  They 
were  billeted  for  ten  days  all  over  the  town  of  Salonica, 


*  This  last  term  is  that  used  by  Gibbon,  and  is  very  apposite.     There  is 
an  absence  of  all  brag  about  the  Turkish  soldier. 


GOVERNMENT  AXD  ADJIINISTRATION.  137 

and  there  was  not  a  single  complaint,  or  cause  for  com- 
plaint, of  their  conduct,  from  man,  woman,  or  child. 

The  streets,  although  full  of  soldiers,  were  as  quiet  as  in 
ordinary  times.  "What  other  troops  in  tlie  world  would 
behave  in  such  an  admirable  manner  \  Read  the  greatest 
authorities  on  the  subject.  Yon  Hammer,  Gibbon,  Boue, 
Ubicini,  Creasy,  and  all  agree  in  praise  of  both  the  past 
and  present  character  of  the  Turkish  rank  and  file.  But 
it  is  the  rank  and  file  that  depicts  the  character  of  the 
nation,  and  not  the  corrupt  oligarchy,  which,  from  its 
prominence,  misrepresents  it.  We  find,  then,  that  the 
rank  and  file  of  the  Turkish  people  is  the  same  now  as 
ever,  so  that  it  is  not  the  nation,  but  the  rulers,  which 
have  changed,  and  this  change  has  been  brought  about 
through  the  corrupt  influences  which  were  handed  over 
to  them  by  the  Byzantine  Empire. 

As  soon,  therefore,  as  the  head  of  the  Turkish  nation 
shall  be  purified,  we  shall  find  the  whole  constitution  in  a 
healthy  state — there  is  no  disease  of  the  body.  The  com- 
bination in  Turkish  government  of  despotism,  with  the 
freedom  of  the  most  democratic  of  republics,  is  unique. 
In  Turkey  there  is  no  aristocracy.  All  men  below  the 
Sultan  are  equal,  not  only  in  the  eyes  of  the  law,  but  by 
creed  and  custom.  A  shoeblack  may  be  made  Grand 
Yizier,  and  it  is  by  no  means  uncommon  to  see  some  of 
the  highest  officials  of  the  State  who  have  been  servants  to 
predecessors  in  office.  There  are  no  family  names,  but  in 
some  cases  titles  are  hereditary. 

To  return  to  the  conquering  army.  As  it  entered  the 
country  it  had  to  establish  order,  and  this  was  done  on 
the  feudal  system,  by  creating  what  were  called  Timars, 
Ziamets,  and  Beyliks — military  grants  of  land  carrying 
with  them  the  obligation  of  providing  a  military  force  for 
the  service  of  the  State  in  case  of  need. 

A  Timar  was  granted  to  a  distinguished  soldier,  and 
contained  from  three  to  five  hundred  acres  of  land,  and 
the  0"VNTier  or  spahi  (cavalier)  was  bound  to  supply  a 
mounted  cavalry  soldier  for  every  3,000  aspres  of  its  reve- 


138  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

nue.  A  Ziamet  comprised  upwards  of  500  acres,  and 
Beyliks  were  still  larger  grants.  These  fiefs  were  heredit- 
ary in  the  male  line.  A  certain  number  of  these  grants 
were  grouped  into  a  district,  and  over  the  district  was 
placed  an  officer,  with  the  title  of  Sandjak  Bey — Sandjak 
meaning  a  "standard,"  or  flag,  which  generally  carried  a 
command  of  5,000  horse.  Each  Sandjak  Bey  was  given  a 
horse' s  tail,  as  a  distinctive  mark  of  command. 

Here  then  was  a  feudal  tenure,  and  a  rough-and-ready 
form  of  government,  applicable  at  a  moment' s  notice,  and 
backed  by  a  sufficient  force  to  maintain  order.  Timars 
and  Ziamets  were  eagerly  sought  by  both  soldiers  and  offi- 
cers, and  became  prizes  to  incite  to  valor  and  gallant  deeds. 
But  although  left  in  possession  of  their  holdings  they  did 
not  represent  the  permanent  organization  of  government. 
The  ancient  and  figurative  idea  of  Turkish  government 
was  that  of  four  pillars  which  supported  the  royal  tent. 
The  first  of  these  was  figurative  of  the  Viziers  ;  the  second 
of  the  Cadiaskers,  which  would  probably  mean  railitary 
judges ;  the  third,  Befterdars  (treasurer) ;  the  fourth,  Nis- 
chandyes  (Secretaries  of  State).  Among  Eastern  nations 
a  tent  was  not  the  simple  covering  which  is  suggested  by 
the  word  in  England,  but  a  far  more  elaborate  dwelling. 
It  had  its  passages  and  apartments,  and  grand  and  smaller 
entrances. 

To  follow  out  the  idea  we  must  picture  the  life  of  these 
nomad  Eastern  Sovereigns,  moving  here  and  there  at  the 
head  of  their  army,  sometimes  to  make  war  on  a  foreign 
power,  sometimes  to  visit  one  part  or  another  of  their  vast 
dominions.  It  was,  in  fact,  a  nomad  government.  It  was 
customary  for  the  great  officials — the  pillars  of  the  royal 
tent — to  meet  at  the  great  portal,  within  easy  reach  of  the 
voice  and  ear  of  their  royal  master,  there  to  discuss  the 
affairs  of  State,  sub  limine  portcB ;  hence  the  origin  of 
the  term  "Sublime  Porte,"  which  now  designates  the 
Turkish  Government. 

Tent  court-life  in  the  East  is  carried  on  much  in  the 
same  way  in  the  present  day — when  sovereigns  occupy 


Q  0  VER2fMENT  AND  ADMINISTRA  TION.  139 

their  royal  pavilions.  I  can  remember  being  presented 
to  the  Shah  of  Persia,  many  years  ago,  when  he  was  dwell- 
ing with  his  court  on  the  banks  of  the  river  Euphrates,  in 
a  pavilion  which  exactly  answers  the  description  of  the 
ancient  court-life  of  the  Turkish  monarchs. 

In  addition  to  the  figurative  four  pillars  of  the  royal  tent, 
there  were  other  officers  of  government,  designated  agas^ 
or  rulers,  which  were  of  two  kinds.  The  outer  agas  were 
military  rulers,  and  their  number  was,  from  the  nature  of 
the  case,  very  considerable ;  the  inner  agas  attended  the 
court  and  serai.  The  serai  is  the  palace,  and  the  harem 
the  women's  apartments  of  the  palace,  so  that  the  two 
should  not  be  confounded,  as  is  often  the  case.  The  inner 
agas  comprised  the  eunuchs  who  attended  on  the  harem. 
Besides  these  officers,  there  were  the  expounders  of  the 
law,  or  ulemas. 

The  first  pillar  of  the  royal  shelter,  the  Yiziers — which 
signifies  the  "bearers  of  burdens,"  the  weight  of  govern- 
ment— were  four  in  number,  of  which  the  Grand  Yizier 
was  the  head. 

The  second  pillar,  or  Cadiaskers,  were  two  in  number, 
one  for  Europe  and  one  for  Asia,  and  watched  over  the 
legal  affairs  of  the  State.  Under  them  were:  1st,  the 
Khodya,  or  tutor  of  the  royal  princes ;  2d,  the  Muftis, 
or  exj)ounders  of  the  sacred  law,  and  afterwards  a  third 
appointment  was  made — ^viz.,  the  Judge  of  Constanti- 
nople. 

The  assembly  in  council  of  the  four  pillars  was  called 
the  Divan.  It  was  attended  by  a  chief  secretary,  or  Reis 
Effendi,  who,  from  being  able  to  visit  and  gain  the 
ear  of  all  the  officials,  was  an  officer  of  considerable 
importance,  and  he  sometimes  became  practically  the 
most  powerful  man  in  the  State. 

The  Grand  Yizier  sat  at  the  head  of  the  Divan  in  the 
absence  of  the  Sultan,  and  he  could  convoke  a  special 
Divan  in  his  own  tent  when  he  considered  it  necessary. 
At  the  head  of  aU  sat  the  Padishah  or  Great  King. 

We  will  suppose,  then,  that  some  of  the  Turkish  generals 


140  TURRET  IN  EUROPE. 

have  crossed  the  Dardanelles,  pushed  forward  with  their 
forces,  and  occupied  a  large  part  of  Thrace,  establish- 
ing their  Sandjak  Beys,  Beyliks,  Ziamets,  and  Timars  as 
they  go.  The  great  Sultan  follows  wdth  his  main  army 
and  "royal  tent,"  thus  carrying  with  him  all  the  ma- 
chinery of  government.  He  groups  his  numerous  Sandjak 
Beys  under  two  heads,  one  for  Europe  and  one  for  Asia,  and 
to  these  he  gives  the  title  of  Beyler  Bey,  "Bey  of  Beys ; " 
or  Mir-Miran,  "  Emir  of  the  Emirs  ;"  and  to  one  he  gives 
two,  and  to  the  other  three  horses'  tails,  to  signify  their 
power.  Hence  we  have  the  common  term,  a  "pasha  of 
two  tails." 

The  term  pasha,  which  means  "the  shah's  foot,"  or  one 
whom  the  Sovereign  employed  (there  were  also  the  "eyes  " 
and  "hands"  of  the  Sovereign  power),  was  not  originally 
used  in  a  military  sense,  but  was  given  to  literary  as  well 
as  to  any  other  Turkish  subjects  who  might  distinguish 
themselves  in  the  eyes  of  the  sultan. 

In  possession  of  the  land  of  Europe,  it  was  necessary  to 
appropriate  it,  according  to  ancient  Turkish  custom,  for 
three  purposes  :  1st,  Yacoufs,  or  church  lands ;  2d,  private 
property ;  3rd,  domain  lands.  The  revenues  of  the  Va- 
cottfs,  or  ecclesiastical  lands,  were  devoted  to  pious  and 
charitable  purposes,  to  the  support  of  mosques  and  public 
schools,  which  received  their  education  through  the  eccle- 
siastical authorities.  The  pupils  were,  in  fact,  educated 
in  the  moral  and  sacred  precepts  of  the  Koran. 

The  private  property  was  subject  to  different  liabili- 
ties, according  to  the  religion  of  the  owner.  If  he  was  a 
Mussulman  it  was  called  asclcriie,  or  tithable,  the  owner 
paying  as  a  tax  a  tithe  of  the  produce  in  kind  to  the 
State,  and  there  was  no  other  burden  upon  it.  If  left  in 
the  hands  of  a  Christian,  its  holder  paid  tribute,  or  JcJia- 
radj  to  the  State,  which  consisted  of  a  capitation-tax,  and 
also  of  a  tax  levied  on  the  estate,  which  was  sometimes  a 
fixed  sum,  according  to  its  extent,  and  was  sometimes 
an  impost  on  its  proceeds,  varying  from  an  eighth  to 
one-half. 


QO  VERNMENT  AND  ADMINISTRA  TION.  ]  41 

The  domain  lands  included:  1st,  the  Miri,  or  those 
revenues  which  were  appropriated  to  the  State  treasury  ; 
2nd,  unoccupied,  or  waste  lands,  which  afterwards  became 
similar  to  our  "common"  lands  in  England ;  3rd,  the  private 
demesnes  of  the  Sultan,  of  which  there  are  a  large  amount 
in  both  Turkey  in  Europe  and  Asia ;  4th  escheated  and 
forfeited  lands  (which  are  now  usually  sold  by  public  auc- 
tion) ;  5th,  the  appanages  of  the  Yalideh  Sultan  (Sultan's 
mother),  and  other  members  of  the  blood-royal ;  6th, 
lands  assigned  to  the  offices  tilled  by  viziers ;  7th,  lands 
assigned  to  pashas  of  the  second  rank ;  8th,  lands  assigned 
to  the  ministers  and  officers  of  the  palace  ;  9th,  the  Bey- 
liks,  Ziamets,  and  Timars,  already  mentioned.* 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  administrators  of  the  Govern- 
ment were  principally  military  men,  and  it  must  be  re- 
membered that  we  are  following  the  wake  of  a  conquering 
army,  which  was  obliged  to  fill  its  ranks  from  a  distance. 
Consequently,  this  abstraction  of  military  governors  and 
officers  of  state  became  such  a  straia  on  the  resources  of 
the  army  that  it  tended  to  weaken  the  forces  by  which 
dominion  was  maintained. 

To  meet  this  difficulty,  which  began  to  be  one  of  alann- 
ing  importance,  Sultan  Orchan,  the  son  and  successor  of 
Othman,  utilized  the  ancient  Turkish  custom  of  ajDpro- 
priating  a  fifth  of  the  conquered  subjects  as  slaves. 

He  commenced  by  taking  annually  a  thousand  of  the 
Christian  children  of  from  twelve  to  fourteen  years  of  age. 
The  greatest  care  was  bestowed  upon  their  education,  in 
order  to  fit  them  for  either  the  military,  civil,  or  ecclesias- 
tical professions,  for  which  by  nature  and  disposition  they 
might  prove  to  be  most  fitted.  They  had  to  pass  through 
four  successive  schools  before  the  final  selection  was  made, 
and  were  then  distributed  as  officers  of  the  state. 

The  abstraction  of  these  Christian  youths  was  not  con- 
sidered a  hardship  by  their  parents,  although  they  were, 
of  course,  to  be  educated  in  the  Mohammedan  faith  ;  but, 
on  the  contrary,  it  was  rather  looked  forward  to  as  a  piece 

♦Creasy. 


142  TURKEY  m  EVROPE. 

of  good  fortune,  because  it  was  likely  to  give  the  family 
greater  influence  -with  the  ruling  powers.  It  was  out  of 
this  body  of  youths  that  the  celebrated  Janizaries — to 
whom  I  have  previously  alluded — were  taken ;  and  it  is 
curious  to  mark  that  the  greatest  persecutors  of  the  Chris- 
tians— those,  in  fact,  who  in  after  times  became  the  leaders 
of  most  of  the  atrocities  which  were  too  often  committed 
— were  not  of  Turkish,  but  of  either  Albanian,  Greek,  Sla- 
vonic, or  Bulgarian  blood. 

The  treatment  of  Christians  in  the  early  times  of  the 
Ottoman  conquest  was  not  severe.  It  was  only  when  the 
Porte  became  corrupt,  and  relaxed  its  vigorous  and  active 
administration  for  the  luxuries  and  venality  bequeathed 
to  it  by  the  Byzantine  Empire  that  the  disgi-aceful  perse- 
cutions of  the  Christians  commenced. 

There  is  a  maxim  of  the  old  Turkish  law  which  says 
that  "the  bended  head  shall  not  be  stricken  off;"  and 
in  former  times  this  maxim  was  respected.  The  following 
question  was  once  put  to  the  Mufti:  "If  eleven  Mussul- 
mans without  just  cause  kill  an  infidel  (Christian)  who  is 
the  subject  of  the  Padishah,  and  pays  tribute,  what  is  to 
be  done  ? "  To  this  the  Mufti  replied  :  "  Though  the  Mus- 
sulmans should  be  a  thousand  and  one,  let  them  all  die." 

The  Christian  subjects  who  paid  tribute  were  called 
"rayahs."  They  usually  cultivated  the  land  as  tenants, 
on  the  metayer  system  of  their  Mussulman  landlords. 

Such  was  the  commencement  of  the  "  Government "  of 
the  Porte.  At  its  head  sat  supreme  the  Sultan,  the  depos- 
itary and  representative  of  the  law,  which  he  can  modify, 
but  cannot  change.  His  ordonnances  are  called  "  Hatt-i- 
cherifs,"  or  "illustrious  writings,"  and  " Hatt-i-huma- 
youns,"  or  "august  writings." 

This  system  of  government  continued  up  to  the  time  of 
Murad  or  Amilrath  III.,  a.d.  1574-95,  who  did  not  in  any 
way  alter  its  principles,  but  re-arranged  the  Sandjaks,  or 
livas  (a  Sandjak  Bey  had  the  title  of  mir-i-liva),  into 
great  Eialets.  There  were  in  the  whole  empire  twenty- 
six  Eialets,  and  each  contained   a   number  of  Sandjaks, 


QO  VERNMENT  AND  ADMINISTRA  TION.  I43 

of  which  there  were  altogether  one  hundred  and  sixty- 
three.  The  Sandjaks  again  were  divided  into  districts, 
designated  Cazas,  or  centers  of  judicial  courts,  so  called 
because  they  were  presided  over  by  a  Cadi  or  Cazi,  viz.,  a 
judge.  Some  of  these  were  formed  of  a  town  and  its 
suburbs,  and  others  of  groups  of  villages  (nahiehs). 
Again,  each  separate  village,  however  small,  had  and  has 
a  headman,  or  codja-'basTi%  elected  annually  from  among 
the  villagers  to  represent  them,  and  who  is  held  resj)ons- 
ible  to  the  superior  courts  for  the  carrying  out  of  any 
orders  which  may  be  promulgated. 

This  organization  lasted  until  the  reign  of  Sultan  Mah- 
moud,  1834,  and  it  had  contained  within  itself  the  military 
government  of  Beyler  Beys  and  Sandjak  Beys,  or  heredit- 
ary feudal  chiefs.  As  might  be  expected,  this  tended  to 
build  up  an  aristocracy,  which,  wielding  as  it  did  a  mili- 
tary power,  was  liable  to  become  despotic  and  independ- 
ent. It  was  the  corruption  which  was  generated  by  the 
weak  as  well  as  venal  government  of  several  successive 
sultans  which  had  permitted  these  military  despots  to 
become  so  intolerable  that  Sultan  Mahmoud  took  the  bold 
course  of  abolishing  them,  and  he  instituted  a  new  classi- 
fication of  the  provinces  into  twenty-eight  governments, 
thirty-one  Sandjaks,  and  fifty-four  independent  Voi- 
vodes ;  but  shortly  afterwards,  when  Sultan  Abdul  Med- 
jid  came  to  the  throne  and  the  Tanzimat  was  established, 
the  old  classification  into  Eialets  was  re-established.  It  is 
evident  that  this  organization  was  one  of  centralization — 
a  principle  excellent  in  itself,  providing  it  is  not  over- 
strained, that  is,  providing  a  proper  amount  of  independ- 
ence of  action  is  permitted  to  each  representative  part  of 
the  organization.  This  permission  was  not  granted  to  the 
Eialet  classification,  and  it  was  found  that  the  center  was 
smothered  by  the  accumulation  of  work  which  poured 
upon  it  from  all  quarters.  To  remedy  this  the  present 
system  of  administration  was  introduced  in  1864,  which 
consists  in  replacing  the  Eialets  with  great  administrative 
centers  caUed    VllaietSy  which  are,  to  a  certain  extent, 


144  TURRET  IN  EUROPE. 

indepeudent  governments  subject  to  tlie  laws  of  the  whole 
empire.  It  was  determined  to  form  a  trial  Vilaiet,  in  the 
first  instance,  in  that  of  Touna,  on  the  Danube,  and  it  was 
found  to  answer  so  well  that  it  was  extended  to  the  whole 
empire,  wliich  was  divided  into  twenty-seven  Vilaiets, 
comprising  123  Livas,  or  Sandjaks,  and,  as  before,  the 
Livas  are  divided  into  Cazas  and  the  Cazas  into  Nahiehs. 
This  did  not  include  Constantinople,  which  was  formed 
into  a  separate  Viluiet,  neither  did  it  include  the  Leba- 
non, which,  after  the  massacres  in  Syria  in  1860,  received 
a  special  and  independent  administration. 

It  will  be  seen  that  even  the  latest  organization  is 
founded  upon  the  ancient  system  of  the  Turks,  and  that 
it  provides  a  ready  and  efficient  means  for  reaching  every 
subject  in  the  empire. 

As  it  would  weary  some  of  my  readers — and  yet  interest 
others — to  enter  into  the  details  of  Turkish  administration, 
I  transfer  that  part  of  my  work  to  Appendix  D,  and  wUl 
here  pass  on  to  the  interesting  and  comparatively  inde- 
pendent state  of  Mount  Athos  and  other  monasteries. 

The  existence  of  these  semi-independent  establishments 
is  another  example  of  the  many  complications  which  sur- 
round Turkish  government. 

Mount  Athos  occupies  a  territory  stretching  from  the 
extremity  of  a  promontory  on  the  confines  of  Macedonia, 
between  the  gulfs  of  Contessa  and  Monte  Santo.  This 
magnificent  mountain,  rising  from  the  very  sea,  in  the 
form  of  a  beautifully-wooded  cone,  upwards  of  6,000  feet 
high,  would  be  an  island  were  it  not  for  a  narrow  isthmus 
about  2,000  yards  broad,  which  attaches  it  to  the  continent. 
Dotted  about  on  its  sides  are,  altogether,  twenty  monaster- 
ies, some  of  them  of  great  antiquity,  and  dating  as  far 
back  as  the  reign  of  Constantine  the  Great.  Two  of  these 
monasteries,  Zographos  and  Chilantari,  were  founded  in  the 
twelfth  century  by  Etienne  Nemania  of  Servia,  and  may 
be  called  Slavonic.  They  are  occupied  by  Servian  and 
Bulgarian  monks,  and  speak  the  Slave  language. 

Another,  and  a  very  important  one  as  far  as  political 


GOVERNMENT  AND  ADMINISTRATION.  145 

affairs  are  concerned,  is  called  Pantalimon  or  Rossicon 
(Russian),  restored  and  endo^Yed  by  Catherine  II.  It  is 
inhabited  by  a  mixture  of  Greek  and  Russian  monks,  in 
the  proportion  of  170  to  350,  but  a  fierce  national  contro- 
versy rages  between  them.  The  Russian  monks  have  for 
long  been  endeavoring  to  encroach  upon  the  monastic 
rights  of  the  Greeks  of  Mount  Athos ;  and  in  1874  the 
Greeks  refused  to  recognize  the  right  of  the  Russians  to 
have  a  separate  or  national  monastery,  maintaining  that 
all  the  monasteries  on  the  mountain  are  Greek  Church 
property,  and  as  such  should  be  under  the  direct  control 
of  the  Patriarch  at  Constantinople,  and  under  the  juris- 
diction of  their  monastic  constitution  (presently  to  be 
described),  as  granted  by  the  Greek  Patriarch  and  sanc- 
tioned by  the  Porte. 

The  Council  of  Monks,  composed  of  the  elected  repre- 
sentatives of  all  the  monasteries  on  the  mountain,  formally 
intimated  to  the  Russian  monks  that  the  monastery  which 
they  occupied  was  not  Russian  property,  but  belonged  to 
the  monastic  congregation ;  that  consequently  its  chief 
abbot  must  be  an  Ottoman  subject,  and  that  its  internal 
administration  must  be  conducted  according  to  the  rules 
prescribed  by  their  constitution.  The  Russian  monks 
ap]pealed  to  the  Greek  Patriarch  for  his  decision,  and  were 
strongly  sujDported  by  General  Ignatieff,  the  Russian 
Ambassador.  It  is  a  complicated  question,  for  the  Greek 
Patriarch  makes  it  a  handle  for  encroaching  upon  the 
independent  rights  of  the  monasteries,  an  opportunity  for 
which  he  had  long  been  looking.  The  Russian  monks  are 
aware  of  this,  and  assisted  by  their  ambassador  at  head- 
quarters, they  play  upon  the  greed  for  power  of  the 
Greek  Patriarch,  but  the  Greek  community  at  large  is 
highly  indignant  at  the  attempt  to  interfere  with  existing 
rights.  This  question  has  grown  from  the  time  when 
Russia  and  Greece  were  united  in  their  intrigues  against 
the  Porte,  when  Russia  was  making  use  of  Greek  Pan- 
Hellenic  ambitions  to  further  Pan-Slavonic  schemes  ;  but 
the  hollowness  of  that  alliance  is  now  discovered,  and  any 
10 


146  TURKEY  IX  EUROPE. 

attempt  on  the  part  of  Kiissia  to  encroach  on  Greek  privi- 
leges is  indignantly  repelled.  The  question  is  still  before 
the  Porte,  which  has  to  steer  between  the  intrigues  of  the 
Greek  Patriarch  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  Russians  on  the 
other.  With  the  exception  of  the  three  I  have  enumerated, 
all  the  remaining  seventeen  monasteries  of  Athos  are  Greek. 
Besides  these  large  institutions,  there  are  eleven  small 
monasteries,  and  as  many  as  three  hundred  hermitages, 
besides  a  number  of  farms  belonging  to  and  worked  by 
the  community. 

The  population  is  entirely  male,  and  no  female  is  even 
permitted  to  enter  the  precincts  of  the  monastic  property. 

The  autonomy  of  Athos  was  founded  by  the  Emperor 
Leo  YI.,  A.D.  911,  and  it  was  confiiTned  by  Mahomet  II., 
who  was  content  to  impose  a  small  tribute  upon  the  monks, 
and  the  independence  of  the  mountain  has  been  main- 
tained ever  since. 

A  common  law  regulates  all  the  monasteries  of  the  Greek 
Church,  both  at  Mount  Athos  and  elsewhere.  The  com- 
munity consists  of  two  classes — the  koinobia,  in  which  the 
members  live  together  and  work  for  the  common  good  ;  and 
the  idiorrhythmia,  composed  of  anchorites,  who  live  alone 
in  their  cells,  except  on  feast  days,  when  they  join  in  the 
common  repast. 

The  koinobia  are  governed  by  a  Wigoumene,  or  superior, 
elected  by  the  community,  the  anchorites  by  a  council  of 
epitropes  elected  for  a  fixed  period.  In  1875,  a  Russian 
monk  named  Macarios  was  elected  Mgoumone  of  the 
Pantalimon,  upon  which  the  Greek  portion  of  that  mon- 
astery, who  were  in  the  minority,  remonstrated  and  endeav- 
ored to  annul  the  election,  in  consequence  of  the  foreign 
nationality  of  Macarios,  and  they  refen-ed  the  case  to  the 
Greek  Patriarch  at  Constantinople,  but  through  the  influ- 
ence of  GeneiTil  Ignatieif  the  aiopointment  was  confirmed. 
The  Patriarch  bridged  the  difficulty  by  declaring  that  the 
church  did  not  recognize  any  nationality,  and  that  foreign- 
ers who  entered  the  monasteries  of  Mount  Athos  lost  ipso 
facto  their  nationality,  and  became  Ottoman  subjects. 


GOVEnNMENT  AXD  ADMimSTIiATIOIT.  I47 

"Tlie  General  Monastic  Assembly"  is  conixDosed  of 
epistates  (deputies)  from  the  twenty  monasteries.  It  sits 
at  Karies,  and  is  commonly  called  the  Council  of  the  Holy 
Mountain.  It  is  presided  over  by  five  representatives 
elected  for  five  years.  Each  year  the  five  representatives 
render  their  accounts,  and  they  alone  have  the  right  of 
affixing  the  seal  to  the  acts  of  the  council.  Karies  is  the 
capital  of  the  autonomous  state  and  has  a  cathedral,  a 
bazaar,  and  the  konak  or  government  house,  presided 
over  by  a  Caimakam,  vrho  represents  the  Turkish  author- 
ity in  the  monastic  estate,  and  is  charged  with  the  police 
and  customs  of  the  island."^  Pilgrimages  are  made  from 
all  iDarts  of  Turkey  to  Mount  Athos,  and  the  pilgrims  may 
be  numbered  by  thousands. 

There  are  many  other  monasteries  scattered  here  and 
there  about  Turkey,  especially  about  the  Balkan  range. 
The  largest,  and  one  which  rivals  in  size  and  gi'andeur  any 
that  exist  at  Mount  Athos,  is  that  called  Rilo  monastery, 
about  twelve  miles  from  Samakov.  The  size  of  this  estab- 
lishment may  be  imagined  when  it  is  known  that  it 
sometimes  houses  and  feeds  upwards  of  a  thousand 
pilgrims  at  one  time. 

I  visited  it  in  1874,  and  although  I  have  traveled  over 
many  parts  of  the  world,  I  have  never  seen  any  scenery  so 
grand  and  beautiful  as  that  of  Kilo.  Mountains  9,000  feet 
in  height  look  down  into  the  very  court-yard  of  the  monas- 
tery, which  stands  amidst  beautiful  woods  over  a  rocky 
mountain  bum.  Grassy  glades,  rocky  heights,  cascading 
streams,  woods  with  majestic  trees  of  great  variety,  fiower- 
ing  shrubs,  ferns  and  flowers,  all  blend  together  to  add  to 
the  enchantment  of  the  i^lace,  which,  combined  with  a 
pure  and  bracing  air,  makes  residence  at  the  monastery 
most  enjoyable. 

The  revenues  of  the  institution  must  be  very  large,  as 
the  property  extends  over  a  considerable  area,  and  con- 
tains several  farms,  which  are  well-managed ;  it  also  re- 

*  Ubicini. 


148  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

ceives  an  income  of  £4,000  per  annum  from  Russia.  The 
pilgrims  are  not  confined  to  tlie  male  sex,  but  include 
women  and  children. 

Some  of  the  monks  are  very  austere  in  their  habits,  but 
others  do  not  appear  to  object  to  the  good  things  of  this 
world.  I  was  rather  amused  by  an  incident  which  oc- 
curred during  a  visit  I  paid  to  the  abbot.  In  answer  to 
my  questions  concerning  the  monastic  institutions,  he  in- 
formed me  that  on  entering  the  order  all  worldly  thoughts 
and  comforts  were  resigned.  Shortly  afterwards,  the 
conversation  turned  upon  the  farm  and  its  products,  upon 
which  he  inquired  whether  I  had  ever  tasted  the  plum 
brandy  which  was  made  in  the  country,  and  on  my  reply- 
ing in  the  negative,  he  hospitably  rose  and  opened  a  large 
/L  cupboard  in  the  room,  were  lay  bottles  of  liquors  and 
glasses,  and  many  other  things  that  spoke  of  creature 
comforts — but  perhaps  they  were  only  intended  for  visit- 
ors ?  The  interior  of  the  chapel  of  the  monastery  is  very 
gorgeous,  the  screen  being  all  gilt,  with  many  paintings 
of  saints  which  are  fairly  executed.  All  the  ornaments 
come  from  Russia.  The  outside  walls  of  the  chapel  are 
covered  with  fresco  paintings  representing  Paradise  and 
Purgatory,  and  some  of  the  scenes  depicted  in  the  latter 
state  are  not  of  a  decent  character.  An  influx  of  pilgrims 
took  place  while  I  was  staying  at  the  monastery,  and 
many  had  come  over  a  hundred  and  fifty  miles  with  their 
families  to  benefit  by  the  holy  blessings  they  were  to  re- 
ceive at  the  end  of  the  pilgrimage.  The  faith  of  these 
poor  people  was  very  touching.  There  was  one  poor  Bul- 
garian young  woman  with  a  sick  child  about  five  years  of 
age,  whom  she  never  let  out  of  her  clasped  arms  for  a  mo- 
ment. Death  was  distinctly  written  on  the  face  of  the 
poor  boy,  but  the  mother's  faith  was  strong,  and  she 
looked  hopefully  and  smilingly  down  upon  her  child. 
Sometimes,  however,  a  look  of  terror  would  flash  across 
her  face,  but  she  soon  smiled  it  off  with  hope,  and  spoke 
with  the  greatest  confidence  that  the  child  would  live, 
for  "had  it  not  been  sprinkled  with  the  holy  water  of  the 


GO  VERNMENT  AND  ADMINISTRA TION.  149 

monastery?"  I  fear  the  poor  boy  never  readied  Ms 
eartlily  home. 

The  large  amount  of  real  estate  which  is  attached  to 
the  monasteries  in  Turkey  establishes  in  a  certain  sense 
Christian  Church  lands  as  a  part  of  the  Mohammedan 
State,  since  these  lands  first  pay  tribute  to  the  Porte,  and, 
secondly,  an  annual  sum  to  the  Greek  Patriarch.  The 
monasteries  of  Mount  Athos  pay  annually  about  £660  to 
the  Porte,  and  £2,000  to  the  Greek  Patriarch. 

They  are  in  a  somewhat  similar  position  to  the  monas- 
teries in  England  in  the  time  of  Henry  VIII.,  and  the 
time  may  come  when  some  reforming  sultan  may,  like  our 
own  king,  sweep  them  away. 

In  dwelling  upon  the  government  and  administration  in 
Turkey,  I  must  not  omit  those  institutions  which  were  in- 
tended to  produce  the  learning  which  should  accompany 
those  in  power. 

According  to  the  Mohammedan  faith,  secular  teaching 
is  so  subordinate  to  and  dependent  upon  religious  instruc- 
tion, that  in  the  earlier  times  we  naturally  find  aU  the 
public  instruction  of  Mohammedans  placed  in  the  hands 
of  the  riema,  or  hierarchy  of  the  sacred  law,  if  I  may  so 
express  it,  for  Mohammedan  law  and  religion  are  so  in- 
timately connected  and  we  find  the  expounders  of  each 
so  closely  assimilated  that  they  form  one  body  in  the 
hierarchy. 

The  earliest  rulers  of  the  Ottoman  Empire,  in  the  days 
when  it  was  one  of  the  most  vigorous  governments  in  the 
world,  recognized  the  importance  of  national  education, 
and  Sultan  Orchan,  a.d.  1326-59,  was  especially  conspic- 
uous in  this  respect.  He  founded  schools  and  colleges  in 
aU  parts  of  the  empire,  but  all  these  schools  were  of  a 
theological  character,  were  attached  to  the  mosques,  and 
were  under  the  tutelage  of  the  L'lema. 

This  principle  of  education  lasted  until  1846,  when 
secular  education  was  first  introduced,  and  the  ruption  of 
the  religious  from  the  secular  teaching  of  the  Mohamme- 
dan Turks  was  one  of  the  most  important  and  radical  re- 


150  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

forms  in  tlie  history  of  tliat  country,  for  it  struck  at  tlie 
very  foundation  of  their  fanaticism,  and  may  be  called  the 
birth  of  "young  Turkey."  Sufficient  time  has  not  yet 
elapsed  to  manifest  the  effect  of  this  great  refoi-m,  as  it 
will  require  two  generations  to  bring  the  new  birth  to  an 
adult  age,  but  it  has  struck  at  the  spring  of  human  action 
— education — and  what  the  effect  will  be  upon  "young 
Turkey  "  at  full  age  remains  hidden  in  the  history  of  the 
future.  Mahomet  II.  was  the  great  reformer  in  the 
old  style  of  Turkish  education,  and  he  it  was  who  classi- 
fied the  efforts  of  some  of  his  predecessors,  and  formed 
the  "Chain  of  Ulemas,"  by  which  a  sound  education 
might  be  given  not  only  to  those  who  were  to  become  the 
tutors  of  the  public,  but  also  to  those  who  were  to  be  their 
legislators. 

This  remarkable  man,  who  was  the  greatest  soldier- 
statesman  that  the  Ottoman  EmiDire  has  produced — for 
Sultan  Mahmoud,  although  equal  to  him  in  statesman- 
ship, was  not  a  leader  of  annies — formed  a  number  of 
elementary  schools  called  Mektebs,  scattered  over  his  em- 
pire in  every  to^\^l  and  in  almost  every  Mohammedan  vil- 
lage ;  but  he  saw  that  the  rulers  of  his  state  should  possess 
something  more  than  an  elementary  education.  His 
empire  was  no  longer  a  great  eastern  camp  with  a  military 
staff  to  govern  it,  but  was  in  a  transition  state  from  a 
military  to  a  civil  life;  it  was  necessary,  therefore,  to 
satisfy  the  nature  of  the  case.  To  do  this  he  made  edu- 
cation his  adjutant,  and  established  and  endov/ed  nu- 
merous public  schools  or  colleges  of  the  higher  order, 
which  were  called  Medr esses,  in  distinction  from  the  Mek- 
tebs or  elementary  schools.  The  Medresses  went  through 
ten  regular  courses  of  grammar,  syntax,  logic,  metaphy- 
sics, philology,  the  science  of  tropes,  the  science  of  style, 
rhetoric,  geometry,  and  astronomy.  "^^  The  taker  of  a 
degree  in  these  subjects  received  the  title  of  Danischmend 
— a  Persian  word,  signifying  "Gifted  with  Knowledge," 
and  which  is  now  replaced  by  the  term  Softa — which  en- 

*  Von  Hammer. 


QO  VERNMENT  AND  ADMINISTRA  TIOK  151 

titled  Mm  to  the  mastersliip  of  one  of  the  minor  public 
schools,  but  in  that  case  he  renounced  the  prospect  of 
becoming  a  member  of  the  Ulema,  or  of  any  of  the  higher 
educational  appointments.  For  this,  it  was  necessary  to 
go  through  a  still  further  course  of  study,  and  to  pass 
several  examinations.  Incentives  to  w^ork  were  given  in 
the  honors  and  endowments  which  were  confeiTed,  some- 
what as  in  the  case  of  our  own  fellowships  and  masterships 
at  the  universities. 

The  Ulema  supplied  all  the  professors  of  the  high 
schools,  and  were  called  3fuderrls,  and  from  the  same 
order  were  chosen  all  the  ministers  of  justice,  including 
the  Cadiaskers,  the  Mollahs,  and  the  Cadis.  The  subor- 
dinate appointments  were  filled  from  what  we  at  Cam- 
bridge should  vulgarly  call  "Poll"  degrees,  and  were 
given  to  the  ecclesiastics  of  the  State,  so  that  we  see  that 
the  actual  priesthood  of  Turkey  takes  a  very  inferior  posi- 
tion in  the  State. 

The  ministers  of  public  worship  are  called  Imaums, 
who  oificiate  at  public  prayers,  and  Sheiks,  or  i)reachers. 
It  must  not  be  supposed  that  because  the  appointments  to 
the  priesthood  were  allotted  to  the  holders  of  minor  de- 
grees it  marked  on  the  part  of  the  Turks  any  want  of  re- 
spect for  their  faith.  Such  an  idea  would  be  very  errone- 
ous. It  arose  in  consequence  of  the  legal  profession  being 
so  intimately  connected  with  the  church,  expounders  of 
the  law  of  the  Koran,  that  they  in  fact  formed  the  senior 
branch  of  the  hierarchy. 

Such  was  the  celebrated  "Chain  of  Ulemas"  instituted 
by  Mahomet  II.,  a.  d.  1451-81.  But  the  strength  of  a 
chain  is  to  be  measured  by  its  weakest  part,  which  con- 
sisted in  this  case  of  the  absence  of  any  higher  educa- 
tional establishments  for  the  general  public. 

The  Chain  of  Ulemas  provided  a  perfect  education  for 
the  legal  profession  and  the  church,  but  there  it  stopped ; 
and  after  members  of  those  professions  had  attained  the 
goal  of  their  examinations,  their  minds  were  narrowed  by 
their  duties  being  confined  to  poring  over  the  Koran  and 


153  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

tlie  works  of  the  caliphs,  for  the  purpose  of  expounding 
the  law.  The  expenses  of  this  system  of  education  were 
met  by  the  revenues  of  the  Yacouf,  or  church  property  of 
the  State,  obtained  by  the  appropriation  of  land  for  that 
purpose  on  the  conquest  of  the  country. 

In  1846  a  divorce  took  place  between  the  Medresses  and 
the  Mektebs.  The  former  were  left  under  the  control  of 
the  Sheik-ul-Islam  at  the  head  of  the  Ulemas,  and  the  lat- 
ter were  placed  under  the  care  of  the  State,  and  formed, 
after  a  time  (1857),  one  of  the  ministerial  departments  of 
the  empire.  In  1869  an  imperial  iradeh  promulgated  an 
organic  law  of  public  instruction,  which,  in  principle, 
divided  the  schools  of  the  empire  into  two  categories — 1, 
Public  schools,  which  were  placed  exclusively  under  the 
control  of  the  Government ;  and,  2,  Private  schools, 
which  are  inspected  by  Government,  but  are  founded  by, 
and  are  under  the  management  of,  private  individuals  or 
companies.     Under  this  category  came  the  old  Medresses. 

The  details  of  the  public  schools  and  colleges,  and  their 
course  of  instruction,  I  transfer  to  Appendix  E. 

It  vrill  be  seen  that  the  educational  institutions  of  Tur- 
key are  still  far  from  complete,  but  that  the  organization 
is  in  theory  most  excellent.  It  is  a  herculean  task  when 
the  complicated  nature  and  the  jealousies  and  religious 
animosities  of  the  population  are  considered,  and  some 
credit  is  due  for  the  advance  which  has  ali-eady  been 
made. 

I  have  spoken,  in  the  chapter  on  Bulgaria,  of  the  great 
and  successful  endeavors  made  by  that  nation  for  advance 
in  education,  and  great  complaints  are  made  because  the 
Porte  will  not  give  government  grants  to  the  Bulgarian 
schools  ;  but  it  answers  that  it  has  established  general  ele- 
mentary schools  aU  over  the  empire,  and  that  it  cannot  be 
at  a  further  cost  because  the  Bulgarians  do  not  choose  to 
avail  themselves  of  them. 

There  is  a  certain  amount  of  justice  in  this  argument ; 
at  the  same  time,  the  religious  prejudices  of  the  Chris- 
tians cannot  be  overlooked,  and  it  is  natural  that  in  most 


G 0  VERNMENT  AND  ADMINISTRA  TION.  153 

cases  they  sliould  dread  sending  tlieir  cliildren  to  Turkisli 
schools,  where  they  may  be  perverted  from  the  faith  which 
the  parents  hold  so  dear.  The  difficulty  might  be  met  by 
a  school  capitation  rate,  administered  by  a  school  board, 
composed  of  representatives  of  all  nationalities,  and  in 
most  cases  separate  schools  could  be  established  for  each 
nationality ;  in  fact,  practically  this  is  partially  the  case 
with  both  Greeks  and  Bulgarians,  who  each  have  their 
private  schools;  the  compulsory  education  is  only  ex- 
tended to  the  Mussulman  part  of  the  population. 

The  education  in  the  Medresses  of  the  Ulema  is  excel- 
lent, but  requires  to  be  supplemented  by  instruction  in 
modern  languages  ;  it  is  still  the  exception  to  find  Turk- 
ish officials  who  can  speak  any  language  but  their  own. 

The  exclusive  education  of  the  Ulema,  like  all  exclu- 
sive education  for  any  profession,  tends  to  narrow  the 
mind,  and  produce  professional  prejudices. 

Our  own  universities  in  Great  Britain  are  models  of 
educational  institutions,  and  we  there  find  all  professions 
represented,  and  each  provided  with  that  branch  of  study 
it  wishes  to  follow  The  social  intercourse  of  men  aiming 
at  different  sjjheres  of  action  cannot  but  conduce  to  the 
general  intelligence  of  the  mass.  The  effect  of  this  is 
even  more  marked  upon  the  teachers  than  the  taught,  and 
the  benefit  to  the  former  reacts  lipon  the  latter  to  great 
advantage.  Our  universities  are  the  source  from  which 
spring  all  the  best  masters  of  the  higher  schools  through- 
out the  kingdom,  and  the  social  as  well  as  the  learned 
education  they  obtain  from  their  alma  mater  has  a  marked 
effect  upon  the  youth  of  the  country  which  are  afterwards 
placed  under  their  charge.  This  advantage  would  be  lost 
if  we  had,  like  the  Ulema,  exclusive  universities  for  law, 
etc.  Our  universities  are  a  small  world,  and  give,  amongst 
other  teachings,  a  knowledge  of  the  world,  or,  in  other 
words,  of  human  nature,  a  very  important  element  in  the 
qualities  necessary  to  govern. 

The  abuses  of  Turkish  government  might  be  amelio- 
rated by  the  establishment  of  universities  for  the  educa- 


154  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

tion  of  any  Ottoman  subjects  who  could  pass  a  qualify- 
ing entrance  examination,  and  if  they  were  so  organized 
as  to  afford  a  sound  education  in  aU.  those  branches  of 
learning  which  are  connected  with  the  public  service,  en- 
trance to  any  government  apx)ointment  might  be  made  de- 
pendent upon  the  possession  of  a  competitive  degree  at  the 
university.  This  would  give  a  fair  chance  to  both  Turks 
and  Christians,  and  thereby  faithfully  carry  out  the  law 
established  by  the  Hatt-i-cherifs  and  Hatt-i-humayoun, 
and  it  would  ensure  a  class  of  highly-educated  govern- 
ment officials  with  a  knowledge  of  the  human  nature  they 
were  api:>ointed  to  govern. 

The  funds  for  building  and  endowing  these  universities 
could  easily  be  provided  by  selling  a  part  of  the  Vacouf 
lands  of  the  empii-e. 

This  completes  my  review  of  the  government  and  ad- 
ministration in  Turkey ;  and  I  think  my  reader  will 
acknowledge  that  the  Turks  have  not  been  either  idle  or 
deficient  in  organizing  an  admirable  framework  of  govern- 
ment, which,  if  it  were  honestly  administered,  would  soon 
raise  the  nation  to  its  proper  rank  in  Europe. 

We  have  now  to  go  back  and  consider  the  greatest  event 
in  Ottoman  history,  namely,  the  celebrated  siege  which 
enabled  them  to  destroy  one  of  the  greatest  empires,  and 
to  occupy  one  of  the  most  beautiful  cities  of  the  world. 


CHAPTER   IX. 
The  Fall  of  the  Byzantine  Empire. 

Siege  of  Constantinople — Constantine  Palaeologns  and  Mahomet  II. — Death 
of  the  Greek  Emperor— A  monster  Cannon — Fall  of  the  Byzantine 
Empire. 

AS  the  Tnrkisli  armies  spread  over  Thrace,  the  forces 
of  the  Byzantine  Empu^e  retreated  until  they  were 
confined  to  the  narrow  limits  of  the  capital  which  had 
hitherto  resisted  the  fierce  attacks  of  the  Ottomans. 

It  was  reserved  to  Mahomet  II.  to  put  the  finishing 
touch  to  the  TurMsh  hold  upon  Europe.  On  the  Asiatic 
side  of  the  Bosphorus  his  grandfather  had  formerly  built 
a  powerful  fortress,  and  Mahomet  now  deteimined  to 
erect  on  the  opposite  and  European  side  a  more  formidable 
castle,  as  a  base  of  operations  against  the  city.  A  thou- 
sand masons  were  commanded  to  assemble  in  the  spring 
on  the  spot  called  Asomaton,  about  five  miles  from  the 
Greek  metropolis.  It  was  the  erection  of  this  fortress 
that  brought  about  a  remonstrance  from  Constantine  XI., 
the  Greek  Emperor,  and  afterwards  a  declaration  of  war 
on  the  part  of  Mahomet. 

By  a  curious  coincidence,  Constantine  gave  his  name  to 
the  capital  of  the  Roman  Emi)ii'e,  and  a  Constantine 
reigned  at  the  time  of  its  fall. 

Closing  himself  within  the  narrow  limits  of  the  walls  of 
his  capital,  Constantine  Pala3ologus,  sumamed  Bragases, 
watched  anxiously  the  building  of  the  fortress  at  Asoma- 
ton  by  Mahomet  II.  "The  fortress  rose  with  great 
rapidity,  and  was  built  in  a  triangular  form,  each  angle 
being  flanked  by  a  strong  and  massive  tower,  one  on  the 
declivity  of  the  hill,  two  along  the  sea-shore.    A  thick- 

155 


156  TURKEY  m  EUROPE. 

ness  of  twenty-two  feet  was  assigned  for  the  walls,  thirty 
for  the  towers,  and  the  whole  building  was  covered  with  a 
Bolid  platform  of  lead."  * 

While  Mahomet  in  person  superintended  the  erection 
of  this  fortress,  Constantine,  alarmed  at  the  extensive 
preparations  he  saw  making,  did  his  utmost  by  flattery 
and  by  gifts  to  ward  off  the  blow  which  he  felt  was 
impending;  but  when  he  saw  that  remonstrances  and 
concessions  were  in  vain,  and  that  the  "die  was  cast,"  he 
determined,  like  a  brave  soldier,  that  the  Mohammedans 
should  not  jpurchase  their  victory  cheaply,  and  he  cast 
down  the  gauntlet  with  the  follomng  words  to  the  great 
Sultan :  "  Since  neither  oaths,  nor  treaty,  nor  submission 
can  secure  peace,  pursue  your  impious  warfare.  My  trust 
is  in  God  alone,  and  if  it  should  please  Him  to  modify 
your  heart  I  shall  rejoice  in  the  happy  change.  If  He 
delivers  the  city  into  your  hands  I  submit  without  a  mur- 
mur to  His  holy  will.  But  until  the  Judge  of  the  Earth 
shall  pronounce  between  us  it  is  my  duty  to  live  and  die 
in  the  defence  of  my  people." 

Strange !  These  were  the  words  of  Christians  to  Turks 
when  the  empire  of  the  former  trembled  in  the  balance, 
and  now,  325  years  afterwards,  in  the  year  1876,  the 
empire  again  trembles  in  the  balance,  and  the  words  of 
Turks  to  Christian  Russia  seem  but  the  echo  throwTi  back 
from  the  year  1452. 

Mahomet  II.  was  an  illustrious  tyrant.  He  was  an 
extraordinary  man.  He  was  one  of  those  sledge-hammers 
of  human  nature  which  are  sometimes  met  with,  and 
which  produce  the  feeling  on  the  mind  that  you  are  in 
the  presence  of  stupendous  force — ^physical  as  well  as 
mental — overbearing  and  cruel,  regardless  of  the  feelings 
of  others,  which  are  crushed  like  twigs  in  his  iron  grasp, 
selfish  and  sensual,  talented  and  clever,  imjoervious  to  the 
true  springs  of  noble  action,  yet  emotional.  A  force 
which  you  feel,  but  it  makes  you  shudder  as  you  rec- 
ognize in  it  the  link  between  man  and  demon. 

*  Gibbon. 


SIEGE  OF  COjS'STANTINOPLE.  157 

Such  was  Mahomet  II.  He  was  an  adept  in  the  art  of 
war,  and  was  indefatigable  in  his  preparations  for  the 
coming  siege,  but  they  were  accompanied  by  a  nei'voiis 
excitement,  which  marked  the  extreme  importance  of  the 
occasion,  and  his  recognition  of  the  power  of  the  Byzan- 
tine Empire,  which  was  arrayed  against  him. 

Frequent  were  the  consultations  with  his  Grand  Vizier, 
his  generals  and  engineers,  and  plans  of  the  city,  and  the 
positions  for  all  his  batteries,  were  laid  out  with  most 
scrupulous  care.  Everything  was  submitted  to  the  criti- 
cism of  his  own  eye,  and  nothing  was  to  be  left  to  chance. 
The  recent  introduction  of  cannon  was  to  be  the  chief 
element  in  the  siege,  and  a  foundry  was  created  at 
Adrianople  to  cast  cannons  which  would  throw  a  stone 
ball  of  600  lbs.  weight. 

All  the  aids  of  both  ancient  and  modern  warfare  were 
enlisted  for  the  siege,  and  men  might  be  seen  dragging 
huge  cannon  into  position,  while  near  them  huge  wooden 
towers,  on  rollers,  crept  slowly  to  the  front,  to  be  finally 
filled  ■\%T.th  troops  and  placed  against  the  ditch,  there  to 
discharge  their  living  freight,  by  means  of  ladders  thrown 
from  the  tower-to]3,  across  the  ditch,  to  meet  the  wall. 

The  smoke  of  modem  cannon  was  to  cloak  the  instru- 
ments of  ancient  warfare.  Not  only  was  gunpowder  to 
proiDel  the  missiles,  but  great  engines  for  hurling  stones, 
and  battering-rams  to  beat  doAvn  the  walls,  were  all  mov- 
ing to  theu'  carefully-appointed  places.  Various  are  the 
accounts  which  are  given  of  the  formidable  army  of  Turks, 
which,  under  their  fierce  Sultan,  was  to  aid  this  grim 
machinery  in  its  work  of  death ;  but  Gibbon  arrives  at 
258,000  as  the  total  Ottoman  force,  of  which  60,000  cavahy 
and  20, 000  infantry  were  regular  troops,  and  the  remainder 
auxiliaries. 

Added  to  these  was  a  naval  force  of  320  vessels,  but 
with  the  excejDtion  of  18  ships  of  war  the  remainder  were 
small  craft,  used  mostly  for  transport. 

Constantinople  was  defended  on  one  side  by  the  Golden 
Horn,  on  the  other  by  the  sea,  and  the  third  side  of  the 


158  TURKEY  IX  EUROPE. 

triangle  liad,  and  has,  a  great  wall  six  rniles  long,  witli 
liigli  flanking  towers  at  very  short  interv^als.  Opposite 
and  parallel  to  tliis  wall  Mahomet  cut  a  ditch  to  cover  his 
attack.  Fourteen  batteries  were  distributed  opposite  the 
most  feeble  parts  of  the  walls.  The  x)rlncipal  point  of 
attack  was  to  be  the  great  central  gate  of  St.  Romanus, 
Archers  were  to  shower  their  arrows  wherever  the  besieged 
should  show  themselves,  and  miners  were  brought  from 
Servia  for  subterraneous  works.  Nothing  was  forgotten, 
and  all  the  art  and  strength  of  the  Ottoman  monarch  was 
concentrated  for  the  effort. 

On  the  Christian  side  preparations  for  defence  were  not 
wanting,  but  there  was  an  absence  of  unity  of  action.  An 
emj)ire  does  not  fall  without  a  cause,  and  the  intrigues, 
the  dissensions,  and  the  Jealousies  which  had  driven  the 
Greeks  out  of  Thrace,  and  hemmed  them  into  their  forti- 
fied triangle,  now  shone  out  in  all  its  force,  and,  like  a 
will-' o-the- wisp,  lured  the  empire  to  its  final  destruction. 
Conscious  of  his  weakness,  occasioned  by  the  intrigues  of 
his  subjects,  Constantine,  eager  to  gain  the  aid  of  any  re- 
inforcement, professed  at  the  last  moment  the  spiiitual 
obedience  of  the  Greek  to  the  Roman  Church,  but  the 
false  concession  only  produced  bitterness  and  disappoint- 
ment, and  the  rancor  excited  against  the  Genoese  forces 
was  almost  equal  to  the  hatred  of  the  Turk. 

It  was  a  forlorn  hope  of  policy,  which  fell  back  shat- 
tered and  defeated ;  for,  instead  of  reinforcements  from 
without,  it  only  produced  fresh  dissensions  within. 

The  total  number  of  inhabitants,  including  men,  women, 
and  children,  did  not  exceed  100,000  persons,  and  of  these 
all  that  could  be  counted  upon  for  the  defence  of  the  cap- 
ital was  5,000  men,  but  to  them  were  added  a  brave  but 
small  force  of  Latin  volunteers,  under  the  able  leadership 
of  John  Criustiniani,  a  Genoese. 

The  imminence  of  the  danger  at  last  roused  the  iDopula- 
tion  to  a  sense  of  their  critical  position,  and  the  unremit- 
ting exertions  and  ardor  of  the  Emperor  Constantine 
transmitted  itself  to  the  troops.     Constantine  distributed 


SIEGE  OF  CONSTAKTIXOPLE.  159 

his  small  forces  along  the  forts,  and  himself  took  the 
command  of  the  outer  wall.  He  exhorted  his  men  and 
officers  to  emulate  each  other  in  the  defence  of  all  they 
held  dear,  and  encouraged  the  timid  with  hopes  of  success 
and  promises  of  reward.  Such  were  his  exertions  at  the 
last  that  he  ins]Dired  an  enthusiasm  which  he  would  fain 
have  felt  himself,  for  in  his  own  heart  he  knew  that  he 
must  light  and  die. 

A  strong  chain  was  thrown  across  the  Golden  Horn,  and 
all  the  ships  which  arrived  at  the  port  were  detained  for 
the  service  of  the  besieged.  Of  war  ships  he  could  count 
but  fourteen. 

The  Turkish  preparations  were  at  last  complete,  the 
trooj)S  were  in  position,  the  batteries  fixed,  the  soldiers 
were  reminded  of  the  glories  of  their  ancestors,  and 
prayers  were  offered  to  Heaven  for  success,  and  on  the 
morning  of  the  6th  of  April,  1453,  the  signal  was  given, 
and  the  Ottoman  cannon  thundered  at  the  gates  of  Chris- 
tendom. 

At  first  the  Greeks,  in  their  ardor  for  the  fight,  rushed 
down  the  ditch  to  meet  the  foe  in  the  open  field,  but  soon 
fell  back  exhausted  by  the  advancing  hosts.  The  battle 
raged  fiercely  along  the  line,  but  night  came,  and  no  im- 
pression was  made  upon  the  gallant  defenders. 

Day  after  day  was  the  fight  renewed,  but  miorning  came, 
and  showed  the  city  still  confident  and  strong.  At  last 
food  was  getting  scarce,  and  the  horrors  of  a  siege  were 
sorely  felt ;  but  soon  the  spirits  of  the  Greeks  were  raised, 
as  away  on  the  Sea  of  Marmora  they  esiDied  five  gi'eat 
ships  well  laden  with  supplies,  and  which,  by  their  colors 
flying,  told  that  they  were  friends  of  those  in  need.  On- 
ward they  flew  before  the  breeze,  but  what  a  sight  now 
met  them  as  they  neared  the  port !  Three  hundred  Turk- 
ish ships  were  dra■v^^l  across  the  straits,  each  filled  with 
troops,  and  eager  for  the  fight.  The  famished  Christians, 
from  the  lofty  towers,  watched  eagerly  the  approaching 
succor,  and  the  hungry  wish  was  father  to  the  thought  that 
the  coming  fight  might  win  a  kindly  smile  from  Fortune. 


160  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

Tlie  news  flew  quickly  through  the  Turkish  ranks  that 
a  naval  combat  was  on  foot,  and  soon  the  waters  of  the 
Bosx)horus  seemed  to  break  upon  a  beach  of  turbaned 
heads — one  bare  spot  there  was,  as  it  were  a  bay,  and  in 
it  the  waves  beat,  as  against  a  rock,  upon  the  charger  of 
the  Sultan,  who,  riding  breast  high  into  the  sea,  came 
down  to  watch  the  unequal  fight,  not  doubting  but  that 
these  rash  sailor  Franks  would  soon  be  punished  for  their 
insolence. 

But  there  were  brave  hearts  in  those  five  gallant  ships, 
full  willing  to  meet  the  outnumbering  enemy.  Gaily 
they  careened  before  the  swelling  breeze,  their  white 
sails  whitening  in  the  sun,  and  steering  straight  upon  the 
Turkish  line,  bore  down  upon  the  foe.  Truly  it  was  a 
gallant  sight,  as  all  must  feel,  who,  having  witnessed  the 
beauties  of  the  Bosphorus,  can  picture  the  struggling 
ships,  urged  on  by  cries  and  yells  from  the  anned  con- 
tending hosts.  Suddenly  from  the  Christian  ranks  there 
burst  a  joyous  shout  as  the  Turkish  ships  first  wavered 
and  then  fled.  But  above  all  shouts  there  arose  the  bit- 
ter taunt  of  the  fierce  Sultan,  as,  mad  with  rage,  he,  with 
threatening  gestures,  called  on  his  naval  captains  to  make 
good  the  fight.  But  the  rent  was  made,  and  like  chips  of 
straw  before  the  rushing  wind,  the  Turkish  craft  were 
swept  aside,  and  amidst  ten  thousand  Christian  cheers, 
the  succoring  ships  sailed  in  victorious  to  the  Golden 
Horn.  Then  many  a  mother's  heart  was  joyous  as  she 
closely  clasped  her  half -famished  child. 

The  days  wore  on,  and  fight  succeeded  fight,  but  still 
the  Christian  front  was  bold,  and  the  Turkish  hosts  were 
bafiied. 

Then  the  warlike  genius  of  the  Sultan  came  to  his  aid, 
and  pointed  out  the  weak  spot  in  the  armor  of  his  adver- 
saries. Could  he  but  place  his  ships  within  the  Golden 
Horn,  the  enemy's  weakest  point  lay  open  to  attack.  But 
how  to  reach  it  ?  The  chain  across  the  mouth  could  not 
be  broken,  and  all  else  was  land.  No  matter,  it  must  be 
done,  and  done  that  very  night.      The  small  craft  were 


SIEOE  OF  CONSTANTINOPLE.  161 

beaclied,  tlie  strongest  men  told  off  for  each,  and  under 
the  shadow  of  the  night,  for  ten  miles  on  a  road  of 
planks,  over  hill  and  over  dale,  in  perfect  silence,  four- 
score heavy  craft  were  dragged  and  launched  ux)on  the 
Golden  Horn. 

The  dawn  brought  a  bitter  surprise  to  the  still  gallant 
Greeks.  And  now  Mahomet  gathered  his  engineers,  and 
the  heavy  cannon  were  seen  moving  to  the  water' s  edge, 
where  rafts  were  ready  to  receive  them  and  form  a  floating 
battery.  Such  was  the  size  of  these  monster  guns,  that 
seven  shots  a  day  was  all  they  could  be  made  to  fire. 
Fifty-three  weary  days  and  nights  had  now  passed,  and 
hunger  had  so  told  upon  the  courage  of  the  Greeks,  that 
at  sight  of  these  floating  batteries  and  preparations  of  the 
Turks  they  grew  sick  at  heart,  and  they  now  clamored  to 
the  emperor  to  deliver  up  the  city.  But  sternly  the  Chris- 
tian king  refused,  and  bid  them  to  their  posts  to  fight, 
and  if  needs  be  to  die. 

It  was  on  the  29th  of  May  that  Mahomet  saw  his  works 
complete  ;  and  all  was  ready  for  the  final  rush  of  Islamism 
on  Christendom. 

The  great  Byzantine  Empire,  once  foremost  in  the  pow- 
ers of  the  world,  had  shrunk  within  the  narrow  space 
before  him,  and  he  was  now  ready  to  crush  it  in  his  grasp. 

Tarin  (to-morrow)  Inshallah,  the  Christian  dog  shall 
die. 

Amidst  the  Turkish  ranks  the  Sheiks  and  Imaums 
(ministers  of  religion)  suggested  hopes  of  Paradise  to 
brave  soldiers  who  might  to-morrow  meet  a  glorious  death, 
and  to  those  who  might  survive  freely  promised  rewards 
and  honors.  Then,  as  the  sun  sunk  slowly  in  the  west, 
200,000  Moslems  bowed  down  their  head  to  Mother  Earth 
in  one  united  prayer.  All  day  the  cannon  had  thundered 
against  the  opposing  walls,  and  near  the  great  gate  of 
Saint  Romanus  a  yawning  breach  was  seen.  Constantine 
knew  that  the  storm  was  soon  to  burst,  but  mean  jealou- 
sies were  rife  among  the  Christian  ranks.  The  gallant 
Giustiniani,  like  a  true  soldier,  did  his  duty,  and  placed 
11 


1(32  TURRET  IN  EUROPE. 

the  brave  Latins  here  and  there,  where  points  seemed 
weakest.  The  Emperor  was  everywhere  exhorting  to  brave 
deeds,  and  enthusiasm  seemed  to  follow  in  his  path. 
AYhen  all  were  placed,  and  orders  given,  then  with  some 
few  chosen  knights  he  retired  to  the  great  Chiirch  of  St. 
Sophia,  He  knew  that  his  hour  was  at  hand.  He  slowly 
entered  the  grand  and  sacred  edifice,  and  there,  nncovered, 
the  last  Byzantine  Emperor,  siirronnded  by  his  knights, 
stood  before  the  cross.  To-morrow  the  Byzantine  Empire 
wonld  pass  away  with  him  !  His  tears  fell  thickly  at  the 
thonght,  and  he  knelt  before  the  cross  and  prayed  that  he 
might  die  as  it  became  a  Christian  knight ;  then,  for  the 
last  time,  he  partook  of  the  sacred  emblems  of  his  Saviour, 
and,  turning  to  those  around,  he  said:  "I  pray  forgive- 
ness if  I  have  injured  any  one  in  thought  or  deed." 

Then,  striding  to  the  portal  of  the  church,  where  stood 
his  impatient  steed,  he  placed  his  helmet  on  his  noble 
head,  and,  mounting  into  the  saddle,  the  humble  Christian 
penitent  rode  off  as  warrior  Christian  king,  to  battle  and 
to  die. 

The  sun  had  set,  the  evening  past,  and  night  fell  on  the 
attendant  hosts.  Christian  knights,  as  they  lay  under  the 
starry  canopy  of  heaven,  cast  off  the  sterner  half  of  man, 
and  let  their  softer  nature  free,  and  loving  thoughts  of 
mothers,  sisters,  wives,  went  winging  through  the  air  to 
meet  in  last  embrace.  And  now  the  solemn  calm  before 
the  coming  storm  drew  near,  and  all  was  hushed  and  still. 
Constantine  did  not  sleep,  but  from  a  lofty  tower  watched 
in  the  stillness  of  the  night  over  the  Moslem  host.  At 
length,  as  dawn  drew  near,  his  quick  soldier's  ear  caught 
the  measured  tread  of  Moslems  marching  bravely  to  their 
posts,  and  many  to  their  graves,  and  he  warned  the  Chris- 
tians to  their  battlements.  Soon  the  stars  grew  pale,  and 
the  minutes  of  many  a  gallant  life  were  ebbing  fast  away. 
Then  suddenly,  like  a  thunder-clap,  burst  out  the  stirring 
roar  of  war.  The  shouts  of  men,  the  clang  of  arms,  the 
cannons'  roar,  the  horses'  neigh,  the  loud  commands,  all 
mingled  in  one  exciting  din  as  the  Moslems  rushed  into 


SIEGE  OF  COKSTANTIIiOPLE.  163 

tlie  breacli  by  sea,  by  land  ;  along  the  whole  line  tlie  fierce 
attack  was  made.  Wave  after  wave  of  troops  went  for- 
ward to  perish  in  the  ditch,  which  was  soon  filled  uj)  and 
bridged  by  the  bodies  of  the  dead  and  dying.  Wherever 
the  Greeks  grew  faint  there  appeared  the  noble  Christian 
king,  and  where  the  king  was  there  the  Greeks  grew  brave, 
for  he  was  ever  foremost  in  the  fight. 

Two  honrs  passed  of  bloodshed,  and  still  the  Greeks 
and  Latins  bravely  held  their  ground ;  the  Moslems 
paused,  and  victory  seemed  about  to  touch  the  hand  of 
Christendom. 

Then,  from  behind  the  smoke  and  dust  and  swelling 
above  the  din  of  war,  there  came  the  sound  of  martial 
music,  drums,  fifes,  and  attaballs,  growing  louder,  louder 
as  it  neared  the  great  gate  of  St.  Romanus. 

And  from  out  the  smoke  there  rode  the  Padishah,  the 
fierce  Seljukian  Sultan,  with  royal  kon  mace  in  hand,  and 
behind  him,  with  calm  and  measured  tread,  there  came 
10,000  chosen  Janizaries,  and  made  straight  for  the  great 
breach. 

Onward  they  came,  and  then,  with  one  wild  shout, 
*' Allahu  Akbar,"  they  rushed  into  the  breach.  Amidst 
the  dust  and  smoke  might  be  seen  the  Christian  king  the 
foremost  in  the  fight,  but  no  longer  by  his  side  stood 
Giustiniani,  who,  sorely  wounded,  had  retired  from  the 
fight. 

Fierce  was  the  struggle  and  furiously  raged  the  fight. 
Here  Turk  grappled  Christian  in  the  death-s-truggie,  and 
shouts  and  groans  and  loud  commands  rose  upon  the  air. 
But  still  the  Christians  held  their  ground.  Presently 
there  came  a  sound  at  first  in  front,  then  swelling  louder, 
louder,  like  a  rushing  gale  from  right  to  left,  from  front  to 
rear,  "  Allahu  Akbar,  AUahu  Akbar,"  rent  the  air.  The 
brave  Constantine  heard  and  knew  that  all*  was  lost ;  then 
turning  to  those  around,  "Can  no  man  here  be  found  to 
take  away  my  Hfe,"  he  mournfully  exclaimed,  but  none 
stepped  forth  to  fell  the  noble  tree.  "It  is  enough,  O 
Lord,  now  take  away  my  life,  and  he  plunged  into  the 


164  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

fight ;  and  fought  nntil  some  unknowii  hand  struck  him 
to  the  heart,  and  as  he  sank  among  the  heap  of  slain, 
another  name  was  added  to  the  obituary  of  heroes,  and 
the  crescent  rose  over  the  waters  of  the  Bosphorus,  and 
cast  a  shadow  over  the  fairest  land  in  Europe.  Thus  fell 
the  Byzantine  Empire,  and  well  might  the  Emperor  and 
his  knights  have  said — 


^o-" 


"  Go,  stranger,  and  in  Lacedsemon  tell 
That  here  obedient  to  her  laws  we  fell." 

I  pass  over  the  miserable  scenes  of  the  sacking  and  pil- 
lage of  the  city,  which  now  became  the  seat  of  the  Otto- 
man Empire.  The  Sultan  proceeded  straight  to  the  church 
of  St.  Sophia,  and  alighting,  entered,  surrounded  by  his 
viziers,  his  pashas,  and  his  guards,  and  ordered  one  of  the 
Imaums  who  accompanied  him  to  summon  the  faithful 
and  all  true  believers  to  prayer,  and  he  then  himself 
mounted  the  high  altar,  and  the  Moslem  prayer  went  up 
to  heaven  from  the  same  temple  that  had  but  yesterday 
heard  the  Christian  prayer  for  victory.  The  body  of  the 
Emperor  was  sought,  and  the  head  cut  off  and  exhibited 
for  a  time  between  the  feet  of  the  bronze  horse  of  the 
equestrian  statue  of  Justinian,  in  the  place  called  the 
Augustan.  It  was  subsequently  embalmed  and  sent  round 
the  chief  cities  of  Asia. 

I  think  that  all  Christians  may  feel  proud  of  the  hero 
who  represented  their  faith  at  the  fall  of  the  Byzantine 
Empire. 


CHAPTER  X. 

MILITARY  OEGANIZATION. 

Military  Organization — Turkiah  Anarchy — The  Divan — Abdul  Medjid — Treaty 
of  Paris — Turkish  Loan — Insarrection  in  Servia — Historical  Evidence  of 
Russian  Intrigue — Difficulties  of  Reform. 

nnHE  introduction  of  artUlery  into  warfare,  wMch  took 
-L  place  during  tlie  reign  of  Mahomet  II.,  marks  a  great 
ckange  in  tlie  mode  of  distributing  the  population  of  the 
world,  for  vre  now  take  leave  of  those  great  waves  of  con- 
quest which,  guided  by  the  military  genius  of  an  Alaric 
or  an  Attila,  a  Genghis  Khan  or  a  Timour,  rolled  over  the 
earth  from  east  to  west,  and  formed  new  races  in  their 
track. 

Hitherto  the  conquering  hosts  had  consisted  of  only  two 
arms,  cavalry  and  infantry.  Their  commissariat  was 
worked  by  pack  animals,  and  the  huge  army  could  move 
with  rapidity  over  mountain  and  plain,  through  forest 
and  marsh,  and  by  changing  their  position  daily  like  a 
swarm  of  locusts,  they  found  sustenance  for  man  and 
beast.  But  now  the  wheeled  carriages  of  artillery  were 
stopped  by  a  trifling  stream  or  marsh ;  the  guns  could 
not  be  deserted,  roads  had  to  be  made,  the  armies  were 
delayed,  the  difficulties  of  feeding  them  became  multiplied, 
and  the  swarming  of  human  beings  over  an  immense  area 
has  been  checked  until  the  land  shall  become  covered  by 
a  network  of  easy  roads  of  communication.  It  may  be 
laid  down  as  a  military  axiom  that  the  numerical  strength 
of  national  armies  will  increase  directly  as  the  facilities 
of  communication. 

The  conquest  and  occupation  of  Constantinople  by  the 
Turks  marked  a  new  era  in  their  history.     They  were  now 

165 


166  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

in  possession  of  a  capital,  and  had  to  cliange  their  nomad 
into  a  sedentary  nature. 

Hitherto  the  successors  to  the  throne  had  been  educated 
in  the  battle  field  or  as  governors  of  provinces,  and 
their  contact  with  the  world  and  experience  of  men  was 
an  excellent  training  for  the  despotic  power  which  was 
afterwards  to  be  placed  in  theii'  hands.  The  real  prog- 
ress of  a  nation  ruled  by  a  despotic  power  strictly 
administered,  must  vary  with  the  character  and  ability 
of  the  despot,  and  the  degrees  of  justice,  morality,  learn- 
ing, industry,  war,  and  vice,  will  be  marked  u]pon  a  scale 
which  has  been  graduated  by  the  disposition  and  aspi- 
rations of  the  reigning  monarch.  How  much,  therefore, 
must  depend  upon  his  education  and  associates. 

But  we  presently  find  that  either  through  jealousy  or 
fear,  instead  of  the  training  of  the  campaign  or  govern- 
ment of  provinces,  the  young  minds  of  the  heirs  to  the 
Ottoman  throne  are  incubated  within  the  shell  of  the 
seraglio,  to  be  afterwards  hatched  as  despotic  monarchs 
over  a  vast  multitude  of  human  beings  of  various  creeds, 
races,  and  rival  interests.  The  consequence  is,  that  no 
sooner  does  an  inexperienced  Sultan  ascend  the  throne 
than  he  is  subjected  to  the  family  influence  of  uneducated 
females,  he  is  fastened  upon  by  a  host  of  corrupting  para- 
sites, and  unless  he  is  a  man  of  extraordinary  natural 
character,  the  government  is  directed  by  avarice,  injustice, 
and  venality. 

The  result  is  conspicuous  as  we  turn  over  the  pages  of 
Ottoman  history.  After  the  possession  of  Constantinople 
we  find  the  Sultans,  and  consequently  the  nation,  gradually 
becoming  more  apathetic  and  corrupt. 

The  old  energy  of  the  race,  whilst  yet  it  lingered,  pushed 
up  to  the  walls  of  Vienna,  but  it  was  only  the  expiiing 
flicker  of  conquest,  and  the  future  shows  the  empu^e  grad- 
ually dwindling  away.  As  the  Sultans  became  apathetic 
by  debauchery,  the  military  despotism  of  the  Janizaries 
dominated  the  will  of  the  sovereign,  and  deluged  the 
country  with  their  arrogance  and  savage  cruelty.     The 


DOWNFALL  OF  THE  JANIZARIES.  1G7 

reins  of  government  practically  passed  into  tlieir  liands, 
and  presented  the  anomaly  of  a  despotic  monarchy  ruled 
by  a  military  despotism.  Sultans  were  deposed  and  mur- 
dered by  this  savage  soldiery  almost  as  soon  as  they  had 
ascended  the  throne,  and  it  is  curious  to  observe  how  with 
the  power  in  their  own  hands  the  Janizaries  still  respected 
the  family  of  Othman,  and  replaced  monarch  after  monarch 
with  his  heirs.  There  seemed  no  thought  of  a  republic 
and  no  individual  ambition  to  ascend  the  throne.  The 
high-minded  family  of  Kiuprili  in  vain  attempted  to  right 
the  ship,  but  the  storm  of  avarice  and  lust  was  too  strong, 
and  they  fell  before  it,  not,  however,  without  leaving 
their  mark  for  good  upon  the  nation.  Turkish  anarchy 
soon  attracted  Russian  cuj)idity,  and  from  the  reign  of 
Peter  the  Great  commenced  that  system  of  organized 
intrigue  which  is  slowly,  but  surely,  bringing  Turkey  to 
ruin. 

Periodical  wars  between  the  two  countries  witnessed 
periodical  dismembennent  of  Turkish  territory  for  the 
aggrandizement  of  that  of  Russia,  and  the  intervals  of 
peace  have  been  occuj)ied  by  the  subtle  energy  of  secret 
societies  placing  every  possible  obstruction  in  the  path  of 
Turkish  progress  by  agitating  and  comj)elling  her  subjects 
into  rebellion. 

The  era  of  Turkish  anarchy  commenced  after  the  occu- 
pation of  Constantinople,  and  lasted  until  the  reign  of 
Mahmoud  II.,  a.d.  1808. 

This  remarkable  monarch  saw  that  if  Turkey  was  to  ex- 
ist as  a  European  nation  her  government  must  be  moulded 
upon  a  European  model,  and  although  his  country  was 
distracted  by  rebellion  and  weakened  by  wars  with  Rus- 
sia, he  boldly,  and  with  all  the  energy  of  his  ancient  race, 
set  about  the  work  of  reform.  He  knew  that  any  step  in 
the  direction  of  good  government  was  impossible  so  long 
as  the  Janizaries  existed,  and  he  therefore  expunged 
them  from  the  face  of  the  earth.  Although  their  number 
amounted  to  forty  thousand,  the  severity  of  this  stern 
retribution  can  hardly  be  called  cruel,  when  the  horrible 


168  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

deeds  of  tlie  Janizaries  are  considered.  It  was  but  the 
execution  of  forty  thousand  murderers. 

The  road  was  now  partially  cleared  for  reform,  and 
among  the  beneficial  measures  that  were  passed  by  Sultan 
Mahmoud  may  be  enumerated  the  following : 

The  closing  of  the  Courts  of  Confiscations,  by  which  the 
property  of  all  persons  banished  or  condemned  to  death 
had  previously  reverted  to  the  cro^\Ti.  This  had  given  rise 
to  much  government  oppression,  and  its  removal  was  a  great 
boon  to  both  the  Christian  and  Mussulman  population. 

The  power  of  life  and  death  was  taken  away  from  the 
governing  pashas,  and  for  the  future  capital  punishment 
was  not  to  be  inflicted  otherwise  than  by  the  sentence  of 
an  authorized  court  of  law,  with  the  right  of  appeal 
through  the  higher  courts,  until  the  appeal  terminated 
with  the  Sultan  himself. 

The  administration  of  the  "  Yacoufs,"  or  Church  lands, 
was  revised,  and  the  revenues  therefrom  placed  under  the 
control  of  the  State ;  but  the  conscience  of  the  govern- 
ment was  not  so  sensitive  on  this  point  as  to  prevent  the 
application  of  the  revenue  of  the  Church  lands  to  the  gen- 
eral purposes  of  the  State. 

The  Timars  and  Ziamets  had  formerly  been  instituted 
as  military  fiefs,  for  the  purpose  of  furnishing  an  effective 
military  force  at  the  call  of  the  State,  but  they  had,  from 
neglect  and  corruption,  long  ceased  to  act  for  any  effective 
purpose  ;  they  were,  therefore,  attached  to  the  public  do- 
mains, which  added  to  the  resources  of  the  State,  and  put 
an  end  to  a  host  of  corruptions. 

A  still  more  important  reform  was  the  suppression  of 
the  Derey  Beys,  or  hereditary  local  chiefs,  who  had  power 
to  nominate  their  successors  in  default  of  male  heirs. 
These  Beys  had  made  themselves  petty  princes  in  most  of 
the  provinces  of  the  empire,  and  their  arrogance  and  exac- 
tions had  become  intolerable.  Some  of  these  independent 
chiefs  could  muster  as  many  as  forty  thousand  men,  but 
by  the  steady  and  firm  perseverance  of  Sultan  Mahmoud 
these  insubordinate  feudatories  were  suppressed. 


TUBKISH  REFORMS.  1G9 

By  a  firnian  in  1834,  the  vexatious  charges  usually  made 
by  public  functionaries  wlien  traveling,  upon  tlie  inhab- 
itants of  the  country,  were  forbidden,  and  all  collections 
of  money,  excei)t  at  the  two  half-yearly  periods,  were 
abolished.  In  this  firman  Sultan  Mahmoud  said:  "No 
one  is  ignorant  that  I  am  bound  to  afford  support  to  all 
my  subjects  against  vexatious  proceedings,  to  endeavor 
unceasingly  to  lighten  instead  of  increasing  their  bur- 
dens, and  to  insure  their  peace  and  tranquillity  ;  therefore 
those  acts  of  oppression  are  at  once  contrary  to  the  will  of 
Grod  and  to  my  imperial  orders." 

The  Sultan  set  the  example  of  attending  the  Divan,  and 
personally  superintending  the  government  of  the  coun- 
try.* 

But  it  was  not  only  the  reforms  which  were  passed  and 
made  law  which  signalized  his  reign,  but  those  which 
were  studied,  partially  organized,  and  afterwards  com- 
pleted by  his  successor,  Abdul  Medjid,  who  was  only  six- 
teen years  of  age  when  he  came  to  the  throne.  At  the 
suggestion  of  the  Divan  he  at  once  pushed  forward  the 
reforms  commenced  by  his  father,  and  the  famous  Tanzi- 
mat  for  equality  of  rights  between  Christians  and  Mussul- 
mans, was  commenced. 

The  Hatt-i-humayoun,  read  at  Gulkhaneh,  near  Con- 
stantinople, in  presence  of  the  Sultan,  announced  the 
termination  of  arbitrary  exactions  in  the  collection  of 
taxes,  equality  of  taxation  in  proportion  to  fortune,  and 
of  liability  to  the  military  service,  publicity  of  criminal 
justice,  and  the  termination  of  the  confiscation  of  heirs 
for  the  crimes  of  their  predecessors. 

This  Hatt-i-humayoun  of  the  3rd  of  November,  1839, 
was  considered  of  such  sacred  importance,  that  the  text 
of  it  was  deposited  in  the  same  hall  as  the  sacred  stand- 
ard of  the  prophet. 

A  further  ordinance  was  issued,  declaring  free  the  pro- 
fession of  a  baker,  and  the  monopoly  of  the  purchase  of 
bread  by  the  Zahire-Naziri,  or  surveyor-general  of  pro- 

*CreasY. 


170  TURKEY  m  EUROPE. 

visions,  was  also  abolislied,  and  from  tliat  moment  all  the 
abuses  wMcli  liad  existed  in  tliat  department  disappeared. 
The  bakers  purchased  bread  wherever  they  chose,  and 
the  supply  was  abundant. 

Education  was  not  neglected,  and  academies  were  es- 
tablished in  Constantmople,  Adrianople,  Salonica,  Smyr- 
na, Brousa,  Bagdad,  and  Trebizond,  where  literature  and 
the  sciences  were  to  be  taught  on  the  European  method, 
and  military  and  naval  schools  were  established. 

It  was  impossible  that  a  sudden  refonnation  could  be 
forced  upon  the  people  without  meeting  with  a  strong  op- 
position, especially  where  religious  fanaticism  formed  a 
disturbing  element ;  but  it  is  due  to  the  Turkish  Govern- 
ment to  state  that  they  met  it  with  as  much  finnness  as 
was  possible,  considering  that  the  country  was  distracted 
by  war  and  rebellion. 

The  close  of  the  Crimean  War  and  the  Treaty  of  Paris 
of  1856  seemed  to  mark  a  new  era  in  the  life  of  Turkey. 
Her  efforts  at  reforms  which  were  to  fit  her  to  become  a 
member  of  the  European  family  had  been  going  on  since 
the  commencement  of  the  century ;  but  they  had  been 
continually  interrupted  by  rebellions  fomented  by  her 
enemy  Russia,  and  periodical  wars  with  that  power,  each 
of  which  left  Turkey  in  a  weaker  state  than  before.  Her 
great  enemy  now  lay  prostrate  before  her,  and  supported 
by  the  Treaty  of  Paris,  it  seemed  as  though  such  a  clear 
road  was  open  to  reform  and  good  government,  that  the 
most  sanguine  hopes  of  improvement  might  be  realized. 
But  this  very  success  was  a  principal  cause  of  the  deca- 
dence of  Turkey,  because  it  had  exhausted  her  resources, 
and  her  revenue  would  no  longer  meet  her  heavy  expendi- 
ture. She  aimed  at  being  one  of  the  European  families, 
and  therefore  adopted  their  customs,  and  began  to 
borrow. 

In  1854  she  contracted  a  loan  of  £3,000,000,  in  1855  one 
of  £5,000,000,  and  finding  the  sensation  a  pleasant  one, 
she  kept  repeating  it  with  Europe  as  the  money-lender  un- 
til the  year  1874.    The  ease  of  obtaining  money  by  foreign 


STOCK-JOBBING.  171 

loans,  and  the  freedom  from  tlie  obligation  of  publisliing 
accounts  of  their  expenditure,  practically  gave  the  Sultan 
an  unlimited  command  of  money  for  the  Civil  List. 

Slowly,  but  surely,  this  corrupted  the  head,  and  the 
corruption  of  the  body  of  the  State  soon  followed.  The 
most  wanton  and  unbridled  extravagance  reigned  at  the 
palace,  and  desire  was  bom  from  gratification  until  the 
inevitable  crisis  arrived,  and  no  more  money  was  forth- 
coming. But  the  corruption  produced  by  the  foreign 
loans  found  its  way  into  every  artery  of  the  State,  and 
poisoned  the  very  existence  of  the  country. 

The  attractions  of  the  bourse  were  so  great,  and  the 
interest  on  loans  so  large,  that  merchants  gave  up  trade 
and  became  stock-jobbers.  Gambling  on  the  stock  ex- 
change became  so  fascinating  that  money  which  should 
have  been  employed  in  developing  the  country,  was 
invested  in  the  stocks,  which,  by  iluctuations,  ruined 
many  a  man,  and  passed  his  fortune  into  foreign  hands. 
Trade  languished,  and  speculation  flourished.  xVs  it  is  to 
a  private  individual,  so  it  is  to  a  nation  ;  the  borromng  of 
money  at  exhorbitant  interest  is  certain  ruin.  The  pros- 
perity of  Turkey  is  dependent  upon  the  character  of  her 
Sultan.  He  need  not  be  a  genius,  because  he  can  find 
clever  minds  to  advise  him,  but  he  must  be  honest,  if  the 
country  is  to  prosper.  Eapid  reform  and  general  corruj)- 
tion  are  so  antagonistic  that  their  presence  at  the  same 
time  must  inevitably  create  confusion  ;  and  this  was  the 
legacy  left  to  Turkey  at  the  death  of  the  Crimean  War 
and  the  birth  of  foreign  loans.  But  the  promulgation  of 
reforms  still  went  on,  and  the  famous  Hatt-i-cherif  of  1856 
appeared  as  a  pendant  to  the  Hatt-i-humayoun  of  Gulk- 
haneh  of  1839.  Religious  toleration,  equality  of  Chi'is- 
tians  and  Mohammedans,  and  their  social  intercourse  in 
education,  the  correction  of  all  abuses,  the  formation  of 
roads  and  canals,  all  were  to  be  carried  out  in  one  sweep, 
lilve  a  change  of  scene  at  the  play — and,  as  might  be  ex- 
pected, the  play  became  a  burlesque.  Hitherto  Turkey 
had  been  honest  in  her  intentions  of  reform,   and  the 


172  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

reigns  of  Sultan  Malimoud,  and  the  early  part  of  that  of 
Abdul  Medjid,  had  only  been  faulty  in  attempting  too 
much ;  but  the  effort  had  been  persevering  and  staunch. 

But  now  new  loans  could  only  be  obtained  by  promises 
which  it  was  impossible  to  fulfill ;  and  the  promises  were 
made,  repeated,  and  added  to,  without  any  intention  of 
carrying  them  out.  Some  idea  may  be  formed  of  what 
became  of  the  loans  when,  as  early  as  1858,  the  debt  in- 
curred on  the  Civil  List  in  less  tlian  six  months,  amounted 
to  the  sum  of  £3,000,000  sterling.  It  was  only  natural 
that  a  discontented  population  should  be  the  result ;  and 
we  shortly  find  signs  of  rebellion  springing  up  in  almost 
every  part  of  the  country.  Increased  liabilities  begat 
increased  taxation,  which  begat  discontent,  which  begat 
rebellion.  The  Mohammedans  attributed  their  hardships 
to  the  introduction  of  Christian  customs,  the  Christians 
to  the  misgovernment  of  their  Mohammedan  rulers,"  and 
thus  fanaticism  grew  and  fiourished. 

But  it  must  be  remembered  that  all  this  time  Russia 
was  not  an  idle  spectator  of  the  troubles  of  Turkey.  Her 
agents  were  everywhere,  and  ready  to  excite  fanaticism 
where  it  slumbered,  and  foment  rebellion  where  the 
ground  appeared  favorable.  I  do  not  constantly  return 
to  these  charges  against  Russia  from  any  fanatical  hatred 
of  that  country,  but  simply  from  indig-nation  at  the  under- 
hand and  unmanly  acts  which  the  history  of  modern  times 
proves  her  to  have  committed.  There  has  never  been  a 
rebellion  in  Turkey  in  modern  times  without  the  presence 
of  Russian  agents.  In  a  mixed  population,  such  as  that 
of  Turkey,  it  is  impossible  to  prevent  rival  interests,  and 
where  they  exist,  it  is  not  difficult  to  foment  them  into 
rebellion.  This  is  the  process  which  has  been  going  on 
for  the  last  century,  and  it  is  hard  for  her  to  kick  against 
the  pricks.  It  is  customary  in  Europe  to  look  upon  all 
insurrections  of  Turkish  Christians  as  the  bursting  of  the 
flood-gates  of  pent-up  fury,  produced  by  the  tyranny  of 
their  Mohammedan  rulers.  But  there  is  another  side  to 
the  question.     ■\Yhat,   for  instance,   says  Consul  Long- 


B  USSIAN  INTRIG  UE.  I73 

worth — whose  judgment  no  one  can  donbt — of  the  Greek 
rebellion  in  Crete  in  1858.  "  I  have  stated  that  the  Pasha 
behaved  with  extraordinary  liberality  toward  the  ortho- 
dox Greeks.  This  was  undoubtedly  the  case,  yet  he 
has  latterly  been  accused  of  persecuting  them.  The 
truth  was  that  he  began  by  humoring  them  too  much, 
and  this  made  them  unreasonable.  Church  building, 
on  which  there  were  former  restrictions,  is  now  a  sort  of 
mania  with  them,  and  in  this  way  they  were  indulged  to 
the  utmost  extent.  They  were  allowed  churches  in  any 
number,  of  all  sizes,  and  in  all  places.  They  were,  even 
when  they  would  not  pay  for  this  extravagance,  gratified 
at  his  expense  ;  he  gave  them  both  ground  and  money. 

"Then,  agreeably  to  the  Hatt-i-humayoun,  Turks  were 
permitted  to  turn  Christians,  and  (what  did  not  please 
them  quite  so  much)  Christians  Turks.  Even  whole  com- 
munities, who,  to  escape  persecution,  had  formerly  pro- 
fessed Islamism,  were  allowed  openly  to  embrace  Christi- 
anity, but  still  they  were  not  satisfied.  These  people,  who 
were  always  talking  of  Turkish  fanaticism,  now  sought  to 
trample  on  it  with  a  still  fiercer  fanaticism  of  their  own. 
Not  content  with  fair  proselytism  they  resorted  to  the 
most  scandalous  means  of  making  converts. 

"Turkish  girls  were  seduced  from  their  families  ;  plans 
of  abduction  were  deliberately  formed,  and  even  a  society 
of  young  men  (among  whom  were  some  Ionian  subjects* 
whose  names  have  been  mentioned  to  me)  got  up  for  the 
express  purpose  of  carrying  off  these  girls  from  their  vil- 
lages. Two  of  these  cases  occurring  at  a  short  interval 
caused  great  scandal  and  excitement,  and  Vely  Pasha 
deemed  it  time  to  put  a  stop  to  such  proceedings.  Acting, 
however,  as  usual  upon  impulse,  the  steps  he  took  were 

hasty  and  inconsiderate Another  still  more 

remarkable  feature  of  the  business  is  that  after  the  Greeks 
had  everywhere  risen,  and  the  Turks  had  begun  to  commit 
excesses,  destroying  their  olive-trees  and  vineyards,  the 
fonner  still  continued  to  stand  on  the  defensive,  and  ap- 

*  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  Russia  was  working  through  Greece. 


174  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

parently  waiting  for  tJie  interference  or  co-operation  of 
other  parties  ;  certainly  it  was  not  tlie  bearing  of  people 
who  had  been  goaded  to  rebellion  by  the  intolerable  op- 
pression of  their  rulers." 

A  rising  in  Servia  was  shortly  added  to  the  other  troubles 
with  which  the  Porte  was  distracted,  and  it  seemed  as 
though  mines  of  insurrection  were  sprung  by  some  un- 
known hand.  In  a  letter  from  Sir  Henry  Bulwer,  our 
ambassador  at  Constantinople  in  1860,  to  Lord  J.  Russell, 
he  says  :  "It  appears  evident  that  a  plan  of  agitation  for 
exciting  the  animosity  of  the  rival  creeds  and  races  the 
one  against  the  other  is  now  being  actively  carried  out  in 
Turkey." 

The  effect  of  this  may  be  inferred  from  a  passage  from 
another  of  his  letters  in  the  same  year:  "The  work, 
nevertheless,  which  this  Government  (Turkey)  had  upon 
its  hands  was  by  no  means  easy  of  execution,  for  insur- 
rection among  the  Rayah  population  was  not  more  to  be 
feared  than  the  rising  among  the  dissatisfied  Mussulmans  ; 
and,  indeed,  a  plot  which  was  detected  in  the  summer  of 
last  year,  and  at  the  head  of  which  was  a  general  of  some 
distinction,  bore  evidence  to  the  fact  that  if  the  dominant 
party  or  the  Porte  has  not  been  able  to  do  all  that  might 
justly  satisfy  the  Rayah  demands,  it  has  done  enough  to 
provoke  a  large  portion  of  the  Rayah's  ancient  masters — a 
consideration  which  should  not,  most  decidedly,  check  aU 
reasonable  efforts  toward  progress  in  the  same  direction, 
but  which  should  put  some  limit  upon  rash  counsels  and 
extravagant  expectations." 

That  the  Porte  was  earnest  and  successful  in  reform 
may  be  inferred  from  another  passage  from  a  letter  from 
Sir  Henry  Bulwer  in  this  year:  "Great  changes  for  the 
better  have  of  late  years  taken  place  in  this  country. 
These  changes  are  as  rapid  and  as  general  as  could,  under 
the  ckcumstances,  and  within  the  time  which  has  elapsed 
since  their  commencement,  have  taken  place.  But  they 
leave  an  immense  space  of  reform  yet  to  be  traversed. 
The  position  of  the  Christian  population  is  considerably 


PR0ORES3.  175 

improved,  and  may  be  yet  by  a  few  simple  and  not  very 
difficult  measures  much  advanced.  But  I  fear  any  exten- 
sive change  must  be  gradual  in  its  progress,  and  as  it  has 
always  to  be  remembered  that  the  Mussulman  class  is, 
generally  speaking,  the  upper  and  proprietary  class,  so 
we  are  not  to  consider  all  the  oppression  which  takes  i)lace 
in  the  provinces  as  oppression  against  the  Christians,  but 
often  as  oppression  against  the  lower  class  of  the  popula- 
tion, both  Mussulman  and  Christian." 

Again,  "Whether  the  Turks  have  done  a  great  deal  or 
very  little  depends  upon  the  point  of  view  from  which  we 
look  at  the  subject.  If  we  compare  Turkey  as  she  is  with 
what  she  was  twenty-iive  or  thirty  years  ago,  the  change 
is  marvelous." 

"Men  who  lived  at  the  former  period  tell  me  every  day 
that  they  can  hardly  credit  the  state  of  things  they  see 
now,  when  they  remember  what  existed  in  the  days  of 
their  youth." 

Lord  Palmerston,  in  1856,  said  that  "in  the  last  thirty 
years  Turkey  has  made  greater  progress  than  any  nation 
in  Europe."  It  must,  however,  be  confessed  that  there 
was  a  very  large  field  for  reform,  but  still  the  extent  of 
the  abuses  should  claim  a  proportionate  amount  of  credit 
for  their  suppression,  since  the  difficulties  of  reform  lie  in 
a  direct  ratio  to  the  extent  of  abuses. 

Some  idea  of  the  difficulties  which  the  Porte  was  labor- 
ing under  at  this  period  may  be  derived  from  another  re- 
mark of  Sir  Henry  Bulwer's  :  "The  Mussulmans  in  the 
provinces,  indeed,  when  of  the  inferior  classes,  suffer  per- 
haps even  still  more  than  the  Christians  from  the  effects 
of  the  bad  government  that  maintains  there,  for  the  latter 
are  usually  in  some  degree  protected  by  the  foreign 
authorities,  whereas  the  latter  have  no  protector.  The 
persecutions  of  the  different  sects  of  Christians,  moreover, 
are  not  unfrequently  caused  by  their  several  animosities, 
and  the  manner  in  which  the  one  excites  the  local  author- 
ities against  the  other.  Protestants,  Catholics,  Greeks, 
are  usually  involved  in  rival  quarrels,  and  the  Turk,  who 


176  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

receives  their  several  complaints,  is  urged  to  espouse  the 
cause  of  the  one  or  the  other  by  the  momentary  influence 
of  the  consul  or  consul-general  who  is  most  in  vogue." 

The  foregoing  remarks  apply  with  especial  force  to  the 
religious  combat  which  took  place  between  the  Greek  and 
Bulgarian  Churches  ;  and  a  great  part  of  the  persecution 
to  which  the  Bulgarians  have  been  subjected  has  eman- 
ated, not  from  the  Mohammedan  rulers,  but  from  the 
Greek  Christians. 

Negotiations  were  carried  on  in  1860  between  the  Porte 
and  the  foreign  representatives  for  the  extension  and  re- 
vision of  the  Treaty  of  Commerce  of  1838,  and  the  follow- 
ing remarks  give  a  general  idea  of  the  system  of  trade  in 
the  country  : — "  In  former  times  trade  was  carried  on  in  a 
perfectly  different  manner  from  at  present,  and  foreigners 
occupied  in  this  country  a  perfectly  different  position.  A 
few  merchants  settled  in  the  principal  i)orts  received  goods 
in  the  wholesale,  and  either  sold  them  to  some  native  mer- 
chant, who  resold  them  in  detail,  or  sent  some  agent  with 
them  through  the  country  who  sold  or  hawked  them. 

"As  to  the  trades  and  professions,  they  were  in  the 
hands  of  Turkish  corporations,  and  the  foreigner  could 
not  enter  into  them,  nor  did  he  compete  in  detail  trade 
with  the  native.  The  consequence  of  this  was  that  goods 
might  be  taxed  at  any  price  after  their  entry,  and  the 
internal  traffic  of  the  country  was  not  open  to  foreigners. 
The  treaty  of  1838  made  a  general  change  in  these  particu- 
lars. N'o  further  charge  was  to  be  placed  on  goods  than 
the  general  import  and  export  dues,  and  British  subjects 
were  to  be  placed  on  the  same  footing  as  native  ones  with 
respect  to  trade  and  traffic  in  the  interior.  The  natural  con- 
sequences have  followed,  corporations  have  disappeared, 
or  nearly  so,  foreigners  everywhere  exercise  retail  trade, 
and  the  goods  which  have  paid  the  import  duty  are  never 
charged  with  any  other."  Sir  Henry  Bulwer  held,  "that 
both  for  the  sake  of  the  Turks  and  for  our  sake,  we  should 
still  foUow  out  without  chicane  on  one  side  or  allowing 
chicane  on  the  other,  the  system  we  had  in  1838  in  view," 


DIFFICULTIES  OF  REFORM.  I77 

and  in  tliis  view  he  was  joined  by  the  representatives  of 
Austria,  France,  Spain,  the  United  States,  and  Sardinia, 
but  the  minister  of  Russia,  and  at  first  the  minister  of 
Prussia,  took  opposite  directions. 

Our  ambassador  then  says  :  "As  to  Russia,  it  is  clear 
that  if  she  could  establish  the  principle  that  Russians  are 
to  have  all  the  privileges  of  Turkish  subjects,  and  pay 
none  of  the  imposts,  she  has  only  to  encourage  still  further 
the  system  of  adopting  Turkish  subjects  as  Russians,  and 
every  Turkish  subject  loould  have  the  strongest  interest  to 
hecome  a  Russian  one. 

"It  is,  moreover,  clear  that  if  the  hands  of  the  Turks 
are  thus  fettered,  and  the  possibility  of  their  systematiz- 
ing theu'  finances  or  obtaining  a  revenue  prevented,  all 
chance  as  to  their  reorganization  is  over ;  and  I  cannot 
help  thinking  it  was  the  intention  of  the  Russian  minister 
to  make  a  bold  dash  at  this  on  the  present  opportunity, 
and  that  without  the  fair  and  full  discussion  we  had 
together,  he  might  have  succeeded.  The  language  of  Ali 
Pasha  was  admirable  throughout,  fair,  firm,  and  concilia- 
tory." The  fanatical  spirit  of  the  Turks  was  not  calmed 
at  this  period  by  the  appearance  of  numerous  Turkish 
soldiers  without  their  ears  and  noses,  who  had  been  victims 
to  Montenegrin  barbarity. 

If  there  is  one  man  in  Turkey  whose  opinion  is  valuable 
and  to  be  depended  upon,  it  is  that  of  Consul-General 
Longwol-th,  for  he  possesses  the  rare  quality  of  a  long 
residence  in  the  country,  great  ability,  and  yet  he  is  not  a 
partisan.  I  therefore  give  my  reader  the  benefit  of  his 
very  interesting  account  of  an  interview  with  the  Grand 
Vizier  of  Turkey,  at  Widdin,  in  1860  :— 

Consul-General  Longworth  to  Sir  H.  Bulwer, 
(Extract.)  Belgrade,  July  14,  1860. 

I  HAVE  found  means  of  communicating  with  the  Grand  Vizier, 
at  Widdin  ;  and,  while  eliciting  from  him  such  facts  and  opinions 
as  he  was  disposed  to  impart  with  respect  to  the  results  of  his  in- 
13 


178  TURKEY  ly  EUROPE. 

quiry,  aud  offering,  in  return,  such  suggestions  as  were  dictated 
by  my  knowledge  and  observation  of  the  places  he  has  still  to 
visit,  I  have  been  particularly  careful  to  avoid  all  semblance  of 
undue  interference  with  his  proceedings. 

The  candor  and  unreserve  with  which  his  Highness  entered 
into  these  subjects,  I,  in  some  measure,  attribute  to  our  intimacy 
at  a  former  period,  though  many  years  had  elapsed  since  our  last 
meeting. 

"With  reference  to  this  mission,  which  had  been  already  fulfilled 
in  the  Bulgarian  Pashalics  of  Varna,  Shumla,  Eutschuk,  and  Wid- 
din,  he  assured  me  he  had  met  with  nothing  to  warrant  the  charge 
of  religious  persecution.  Not  a  single  case  of  oppression  expe- 
rienced by  Christians  at  the  hands  of  Turks  had  been  brought  to 
his  cognizance.  His  satisfaction  at  this  result  was,  in  some 
measure,  troubled  by  the  annoyance  he  felt  at  having  been  sent 
on  an  errand  so  futile  to  the  provinces,  at  a  time  when  he  might 
have  been  profitably  emploj^ed  in  the  capital. 

At  Widdin,  however,  a  petition  had  been  presented  to  him  sub- 
scribed with  300  signatures,  and  containing  vague  charges  against 
the  local  authorities.  This  document  he  did  not  hesitate  to 
characterize  as  spurious.  Cases  of  outrage  and  cruelty,  and  of 
forced  conversion  to  Islamism,  could  with  no  color  of  probability 
be  sustained  in  Bulgaria,  nor  could  any  amount  of  subornation 
and  suggestion  enlist  witnesses  in  support  of  them  on  the  spot. 

The  rest  of  the  gi'ievances  enumerated  could  scarcely  be  viewed 
as  serious. 

1st.  With  reference  to  the  refusal  of  the  local  authorities  to 
allow  the  Christians  to  put  up  a  church-bell,  it  may  be  remarked 
that  this  use  of  bells  in  the  East  has  always  been  considered  as 
tantamount  to  a  recognition  of  Christianity  being  the  established 
worship  of  the  place.  In  some  towns,  therefore,  inhabited  almost 
exclusively  by  Christians,  this  concession  has  been  made  by  the 
Government.  But  at  "Widdin,  where  more  than  three-fourths  of 
the  inhabitants  are  Turks,  it  would  have  involved  an  insult  to 
their  prejudices  and  a  dangerous  experiment  on  their  forbearance. 
At  a  former  period  the  Christians  would  not  have  dreamed  of  put- 
ting forward  such  a  pretension  ;  and  it  must  be  admitted  that  in 
all  other  respects  there  is  no  restriction  on  religious  ceremonies, 
and  not  even  on  public  processions. 

2nd.  It  is  stated  in  the  petition  that  the  Cadi,  or  Mussulman 


DIFFICULTIES  OF  REFORM.  179 

Judge,  had  arbitrarily  interfered  with  the  affairs  of  tlic  Cliristian 
community  ;  that  is,  in  questions  of  inheritance  and  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  property  of  minors.  Proof  of  such  interference, 
however,  tliough  challenged  and  earnestly  sought  by  the  Grand 
Vizier,  was  wholly  wanting  ;  wanting  at  least  at  Widdin,  though 
there  may  have  been  interference  in  other  parts  of  the  empire. 
Indeed,  I  remember  to  have  heard  something  of  the  kind  com- 
plained of  in  Crete  ;  and  on  this  foundation,  and  no  other 
probably,  rests  the  charge  in  the  Widdin  petition.  Nothing  can 
more  clearly  illustrate  the  looseness  of  these  charges  in  general. 

3rd.  It  is  represented  that  the  Christians  admitted  as  members 
into  the  Med j  lis,  or  Municipal  Council,  were  allowed  no  voice  in 
its  proceedings,  and  had,  in  fact,  been  silenced  by  the  Pasha. 
This  charge  was  fully  investigated  by  the  Grand  Vizier,  and 
proved  to  be  unsupported  by  a  shadow  even  of  evidence.  It  was, 
moreover,  denied  most  positively  by  the  bishop,  who  has  himself 
a  seat  in  the  Medjlis.  If  the  petitioners  had  been  satisfied  with 
affirming  that  the  Christian  members  exercised  little  influence  or 
authority  in  the  Medjlis,  the  complaint  would  have  been  more 
plausible  ;  though  as  regards  Widdi)i,  I  am  told  it  would,  even 
when  thus  qualified,  have  been  inapplicable.  My  own  experience, 
however,  leads  me  to  infer  that  in  many  places,  and  I  should  say 
the  majority  of  them,  it  were  vain  to  look  for  independence  of 
character  in  the  Christian  members  of  these  councils,  not  more 
from  the  domineering  spirit  of  the  Turks  than  their  own  disposi- 
tion, which  is  crouching  and  corrupt ;  corruption  and  falsehood, 
indeed,  are  the  chronic  infirmities,  though  in  a  different  degree, 
of  the  generation  both  Cliristian  and  Moslem.  Time  and  educa- 
tion alone  can  effect  a  change  for  the  better.  The  Government 
may,  by  its  Edicts  and  Hatt-i-humayouns,  hasten  and  advance  such 
a  reform  ;  but  I  question  very  much  whether  more  evil  than  good 
will  not  arise  from  proclaiming  a  social  equality  which  is,  in  the 
present  state  of  things  and  relations  of  society,  morally  impossible. 

Equality  before  the  law  is  that  which  must  be  first  established  ; 
the  only  sort  of  equality,  in  fact,  which  can,  under  existing  cir- 
cumstances, be  realized.  And  in  connection  with  this,  we  come 
to  the  complaint  in  the  petition — the  only  tangible  point  in  it — 
relative  to  the  rejection  of  Christian  evidence  in  the  Ottoman 
tribunals.  In  this  respect,  it  cannot  be  denied  there  is  room  for 
amendment,  not  only  at  Widdin,  but  in  every  province  of  tho 


180  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

empire.  A  futile  regulation  has  been  enacted  by  wliicli  such  evi- 
dence is  admitted  in  an  inferior  police  court,  but  excluded  from 
the  higher  or  Municipal  Council,  while  the  sentence  passed  in  that 
where  witnesses  are  heard  has  to  be  confirmed  in  the  other  where 
they  are  not.  All  this  has  the  appearance  of  evasion — one  of 
those  half-measures  which  give  satisfaction  to  nobody.  Nor  is 
this  all :  a  distinction  is  drawn  in  the  Hatt-i-humayoun  itself  be- 
tween civil  and  criminal  suits,  Christian  evidence  being  held  to 
be  admissable  in  the  latter,  but  not  in  the  former.  The  plea  upon 
which  it  is  defended  is,  however,  specious  enough  :  it  is  urged 
that  the  property  of  the  Turks,  particularly  in  districts  where 
they  are  in  a  great  relative  minority,  would  be  exposed  to  confis- 
cation if,  in  the  existing  demoralized  state  of  society.  Christian 
testimony  were  taken  in  cases  of  this  kind.  But  it  may,  on  the 
other  hand,  be  rejoined  that  much  of  this  demoralization,  as 
regards  the  indifference  shown  to  perjury,  both  by  Turks  and 
Christians,  may  be  traced  to  the  lax  and  vicious  principle  acted 
upon  in  the  Mussulman  Courts,  where  as  the  only  means  of  secur- 
ing justice  to  Christians,  Mussulman  false  witnesses  are  permitted 
to  give  evidence  on  their  behalf.  The  abolition  of  this  practice 
would  do  more  than  anything  else  to  purify  these  tribunals  ;  but 
this  can  only  be  effectually  accomplished  by  the  admission  of 
Christian  evidence,  instead  of  Mussulman  perjury,  as  a  matter  of 
legal  necessity.  The  "Ulema,"  or  the  law  authorities  of  Turkey, 
will  have  eventually  either  to  do  this,  or  to  renounce  the  adjudica- 
tion, together  with  the  emoluments  arising  therefrom,  of  all  civil 
suits.  Were  the  alternative  resolutely  put  to  them  by  the  Porte, 
there  can  be  but  little  doubt  what  their  decision  would  be.  In 
the  meanwhile,  this  is  unquestionably  the  chief  obstacle  to  any 
amelioration  in  the  matter. 

There  is  another  abuse  which  calls  urgently  for  correction.  I 
mean  the  forcible  abduction  of  Christian  girls  by  Mohammedans. 
It  is  not  alluded  to  in  the  Widdin  petition,  and,  indeed,  is  a  crime 
by  no  means  common  in  Bulgaria,  nor,  as  I  believe,  in  any  other 
province,  except  Northern  Albania.  Still  it  is  one  which  should 
not  be  neglected  by  the  Porte,  for  it  is  that,  and  that  only,  which 
has  furnished  the  ground  for  the  most  serious  of  the  charges  ad- 
vanced— that  is,  the  forced  conversion  of  Christians  to  Islamism. 
Much  has  been  said  in  extenuation  of  this  practice  of  abduction. 
It  is  an  old  custom  of  these  wild  districts,  and  was  formerly  held 


DIFFICULTIES  OF  REFORM.  181 

to  ennce  manly  spirit  on  the  part  of  tlie  ravislier.  It  is  asserted 
also,  and  I  believe  it,  that  the  girls  are  frequently  consenting  par- 
ties to  their  own  abduction,  and  that  the  parents,  by  delaying  to 
give  them  in  marriage,  with  a  view  of  appropriating  their  services 
as  long  as  possible,  indirectly  bring  this  misfortune  on  themselves. 
But  these  palliatives,  and  others  of  the  kind,  which  may  be  urged, 
are,  I  think,  beside  the  question,  which  is  simply  if  seduction  and 
violence  has  been  employed  in  removing  these  girls  from  the  roof 
and  protection  of  their  parents.  But  instead  of  putting  it  to 
this  issue,  it  has  been  the  rule  to  force  the  party  to  appear  before 
the  tribunal  which  rejects  Christian  evidence,  and  to  dispose  of 
the  affair  summarily,  by  compelling  her  to  declare  herself  a  Chris- 
tian or  a  Mohammedan. 

Against  this  mode  of  procedure  I  deemed  it  my  duty  to  make  a 
determined  stand,  more  than  six  years  ago,  at  Mouastir.  I  in- 
sisted on  all  such  cases  being  treated  as  police  matters  and  not 
questions  of  religion,  which,  I  maintained,  was  outraged  by  being 
made  a  cloak  for  such  disorders.  I  appealed  also  to  firmans  and 
vizirial  letters,  in  which  force,  as  a  means  of  proselytism,  was 
strictly  forbidden.  I  finally  obtained  my  point,  and  the  best  re- 
sults followed.  In  all  such  cases,  which  rapidly  diminished  in 
number,  the  girls  were  forthwith  restored  to  their  families,  and 
their  ravishers  punished  as  they  deserved.  These  proceedings 
■were  duly  reported  to  Constantinople,  but  there  a  different  view 
seems  to  have  prevailed  on  the  question,  which  it  flattered  the 
fanaticism  of  all  parties,  and  of  Greeks  as  well  as  Turks,  to  invest, 
as  before,  with  a  religious  character.  Various  expedients  were 
devised,  and,  among  others,  that  of  sequestering  the  victim  of 
abduction  for  three  days  in  the  residence  of  the  Bishop  previous 
to  her  profession  in  the  faith  in  the  Medjlis. 

But  this  way  of  proceeding,  after  occasioning  much  scandal 
and  recrimination,  has  been  definitively  abandoned.  The  ques- 
tion, however,  should  be  set  at  rest ;  and  the  Porte  herself  seeing 
the  imputations  it  exposes  her  to,  is  chiefly  interested  in  not  leav- 
ing it  open  any  longer.  The  most  practical  solution  is,  in  my 
opinion,  that  above  suggested. 

It  was  gratifying,  therefore,  to  find  that  the  Grand  Vizier  took 
the  same  view  of  the  matter  ;  and  what  is  more,  he  promised  me 
he  would  do  his  best  to  enforce  it.  His  Highness,  moreover, 
agreed  in  the  opinion  I  expressed  that  this  and  the  question  of 


182  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

Christian  evidence  are  the  two  main  points  to  which,  as  sources 
of  bitter  feeling  and  discussion,  the  attention  of  the  Porte  should 
now  be  directed.  As  to  eradicating,  by  any  summary  process, 
mere  religions  antipathies,  which  were  mutual  between  the  Turks 
and  Christiaus,  the  only  difference  being  that  the  Turks,  a,s  mas- 
ters, had  been  under  greater  temptation  to  display  them,  the  task 
was,  he  said,  hopeless  ;  all  that  could  be  done  was  to  deal  with 
their  effects  in  the  shape  of  overt  acts.  It  was,  at  the  same  time, 
a  great  mistake  to  suppose  that  the  oppression  complained  of  had 
been  systematic  or  uniform.  The  contrary,  indeed,  was  the  case. 
The  result  of  the  Ottoman  conquest  had  been  to  establish  the 
supremacy  of  one  people  over  another  while  the  government  had, 
from  the  democratic  tendencies  of  Islamism,  been  much  more 
popular  in  its  essence  than  was  generally  imagined.  It  was  a 
fact  which  did  honor  to  the  Turks,  that  living  in  juxtaposition 
with  conquered  races,  they  had  discovered  a  degree  of  toleration 
and  forbearance  to  which,  considering  they  were  uncontrolled,  his- 
tory could  not  furnish  a  parallel.  Their  hand,  it  is  true,  had  been 
heavier  on  the  Christians  in  some  parts  of  the  empire  than  it  had 
been  in  others,  and  this  when  a  rude,  popular  authority  was  exer- 
cised, was  to  have  been  expected  as  the  natural  consequence  of 
different  circumstances  in  different  provinces.  In  Bulgaria  and 
on  the  Danube,  where  the  Turks  garrisoned  the  fortresses,  and 
occupied  in  force  the  considerable  towns,  the  pressure  on  the 
Rayahs  might  have  been  greater  in  their  immediate  neighborhood ; 
but  they  were  comparatively  unmolested  in  the  distant  villages  of 
the  plains  and  the  Balkans.  In  Albania  the  instincts  of  race  are 
stronger  than  the  prejudices  of  religion ;  and  it  was  remarkable 
that  though  Christians  of  a  race,  in  their  estimation,  inferior,  such 
as  the  Bulgarians,  who  live  among  them,  are  treated  with  harsh- 
ness and  contumely,  Christians  of  the  Albanian  blood  are  allowed 
to  wear  their  arms,  and  are  independent  almost  as  themselves. 
The  province  in  which  Christians  have  had  most  reason  to  com- 
plain was  Bosnia.  The  question  is,  there,  one  of  noble  and  serf, 
of  a  privileged  and  unprivileged  class,  precisely  analogous  to  that 
which  now  occupies  the  Eussian  Government ;  but  in  Bosnia  the 
question  of  privilege  was  complicated  by  religious  considerations, 
the  nobles  having  at  a  former  period  embraced  ]\Iohammedanism 
to  preserve  their  estates,  which  were  thus  conditionally  assured  to 
them.     Each  of  the  other  provinces  had  passed  through  its  pecu- 


DIFFICULTIES  OF  REFORM.  183 

liar  ordeal,  and  a  separate  inqiiiry  into  the  past  and  present  con- 
dition of  each  would  tend  entirely  to  disprove  the  charge  of  sys- 
tematic oppression.  It  was,  in  truth,  the  absence  of  anything 
like  system  or  uniformity  that  rendered  it  difficult  for  the  Porte 
to  adopt  any  general  regime  for  the  amelioration  of  the  condition 
of  the  Christians. 

I  give  the  above  remarks  as  the  substance  rather  of  my  conver- 
sation with  the  Grand  Vizier  than  a  distinct  recapitulation  of 
what  was  said  on  either  side,  which,  as  our  views  were  almost 
identical,  is  the  less  necessary  ;  but  with  reference  to  the  last  ob- 
servation, I  ventured  to  submit  to  his  Highness  whether  it  might 
not  have  been  better,  under  the  circumstances  he  had  described, 
to  regulate  and  adopt,  more  than  had  been  yet  attempted,  the 
administration  of  the  provinces  to  the  different  degrees  of  civiliz- 
ation developed  in  each.  In  Koumelia,  where  I  had  resided,  and 
in  other  Pashalics  which  I  had  visited,  I  had  acquired  the  convic- 
tion that  the  double  government  of  the  Pasha  and  the  Medjlis 
worked  badly  ;  local  influences,  averse  to  Christian  interests,  pre- 
vailed in  those  councils,  nor  was  the  matter  mended  much  by  the 
admission  of  Christian  members,  who  were  for  the  most  part 
timid  and  corrupt.  The  best  j)rotectors  of  the  Christians  were 
the  functionaries,  who,  deriving  their  authority  immediately  from 
the  Porte,  are  more  likely,  if  duly  invested  with  power  and  re- 
sponsibility, to  be  inspired  by  the  liberal  sentiments  which  the 
Porte  professes  toward  the  Christians  under  her  rule.  The  Pasha 
might  seek  for  information  and  advice  from  his  Medjlis,  but 
should  not  be  controlled  by  it. 

In  referring  to  the  general  subject  of  Ottoman  administration, 
fiscal,  military,  and  judicial,  I  kept  carefully  within  the  bounds  of 
friendly  counsel  and  criticism,  which  have  been  repeatedly  en- 
joined by  your  Excellency,  and  his  Highness  on  that  account  per- 
haps spoke  with  less  reserve.  Though  claiming  credit  for  Avhat 
had  been  done  by  the  Sultan's  Government,  he  acknowledged  that 
he  had  found  much  to  grieve  and  disappoint  him,  and  among 
other  things  he  thought  that  sufficient  vigor  had  not  been  exerted 
in  the  repression  of  brigandage.  In  the  severity  he  had  himself 
displayed  in  the  punishment  of  offenders,  he  had  admitted  no 
distinction  between  Christians  and  Mussulmans  ;  examples  had 
also  been  made  which  he  trusted  would  not  be  without  their  effect 
on  another  sort  of  brigandage — the  official  delinquency  by  which 


184  TURRET  IN  EUROPE. 

lie  allowed  tliat  tlie  administration,  both  civil  and  military,  was 
still  by  far  too  much  tainted  ;  but  where,  in  the  backward  state 
of  morals  and  of  education,  can  you  find  abetter  class  of  function- 
aries ? 

A  series  of  questions  relative  to  Turkish  administration  has 
been  lately  addressed  by  your  Excellency  to  Her  Majesty's  Consu- 
lar Body.  The  attention  I  have  given  to  them  will,  I  trust,  be 
sufficiently  apparent  from  the  tenor  of  this  report.  None  of  these 
has  impressed  me  as  being  more  significant  and  suggestive  in  their 
import  than  that  accompanied  by  the  caution  not  to  adopt  an  im- 
possible standard  of  comparison.  The  least  exceptionable,  per- 
haps, must  be  sought,  certainly  not  in  the  particular  constitu- 
tional form  with  which  we  may  be  most  conversant,  but  rather  in 
Asiatic  Governments,  or  in  that  of  Eussia,  or  in  such  of  the 
European  as  are  least  advanced  or  most  retrograde.  Comparison 
even  with  these  might  not  be  altogether  satisfactory,  and,  if  I  am 
not  deceived,  the  only  true  measure  of  the  merits  of  a  govern- 
ment is  the  social  and  moral  develoj^ment  of  the  people  ruled  by 
it.  No  administration,  be  it  liberal  or  despotic,  Mohammedan  or 
Christian,  ought  to  be  far  behind  or  can  be  much  in  advance  of 
this  condition.  This  is  a  test,  the  application  of  which  to  her- 
self the  Porte  might  accejDt  with  confidence.  And  the  other  crite- 
rion of  progress  proposed  by  your  Excellency,  that  of  time,  or 
the  Turkey  of  to-day  compared  with  the  Turkey  of  a  given  num- 
ber of  years  ago,  is  one  which  I  doubt  not  would  be  still  more 
favorable  to  her. 

This  was  a  standard  which  in  my  conversation  with  the  Grand 
Vizier  naturally  occurred  to  both  of  us.  Almost  a  quarter  of  a 
century,  including  the  most  eventful  years  of  Turkish  history, 
had  elapsed  since  we  had  last  seen  or  conversed  with  each  other. 
I  had  known  him  in  early  life,  at  the  commencement  of  his  career, 
when  his  fortunes,  like  those  of  most  Turkish  subaltern  officers, 
consisted  of  little  else  than  hopes  and  aspirations,  which,  if  I 
deemed  them  extravagant,  were,  to  do  him  justice,  honorable  and 
patriotic.  Our  acquaintance  was  now  renewed,  when  he  had  out- 
grown even  those  aspirations,  and  in  summing  up  the  progress  and 
all  that  had  been  accomplished  during  that  interval,  and  in  which 
he  had,  with  no  common  zeal,  energy,  and  singleness  of  purpose, 
borne  his  part,  it  was  feelingly  and  with  honest  pride  that  he 
appealed  to  me,  as  to  one  resident  in  the  country,  and  not  igno- 


DIFFICULTIES  OF  REFORM.  185 

rant  of  its  affairs,  whether  the  result  was  not  such  as  they  could 
fairly  boast  of. 

"You  are  doubtless  aware,"  he  said,  "that  our  revenue,  which 
thirty  years  ago  was  not  £4,000,000,  now  amounts  to  £11,000,000 
sterling ;  that  our  commerce  and  agriculture  have  made  com- 
mensurate strides  ;  that  the  population  of  the  empire,  and  par- 
ticularly the  Christian  part  of  it,  has  been  much  and  rapidly 
augmented.  Is  such  a  fact  consistent  with  the  oppression  they 
are  still  said  to  be  groaning  under  ?  " 

In  support  of  his  assertions  with  respect  to  the  increase  of  trade, 
his  Highness  entered  into  some  interesting  particulars  connected 
with  the  exportation  of  silk,  as  estimated  by  the  customs  returns  ; 
and  he  finally  adverted  to  the  progress  made  in  their  military  or- 
ganization, which,  though  still  deficient  in  many  respects,  yet  if 
compared  with  what  it  was  twenty  years  ago,  must  be  by  any 
competent  judge  admitted  to  be  extraordinary.  The  Porte,  he 
said,  was  most  deeply  interested  in  keeping  up  the  numerical 
strength  and  efficiency  of  her  army,  not  only  as  a  security  against 
foreign  aggression,  but  as  a  preservative  against  anarchy  in  the 
provinces.  To  put  down  this,  and  assist  in  the  great  and  neces- 
sary work  of  centralization,  a  powerful  army  was  more  than  ever 
indispensable. 

"  In  respect,  however  to  the  extent  to  which  anarchy  still  pre- 
vails, you  must  confess,"  he  said,  "that  we  have  again  reason  to 
congratulate  ourselves.  You  can  remember  the  time  when  we 
were  emerging  from  a  far  more  chaotic  state  of  things  ;  when,  to 
instance  only  our  European  provinces,  they  were,  with  some  soli- 
tary exceptions,  all  of  them  in  arms  against  each  other,  or  against 
the  authority  of  the  sovereign,  whom  the  Pashas  of  Epirus, 
Widdin,  and  Eustchuk,  and  the  Servians,  Bosnians,  and  Alba- 
nians, held  equally  at  defiance.  But  order  is  now  the  rule,  and 
anarchy  the  exception.  Give  us  but  fair  play,  and  doubt  not  we 
can  defend  our  rights  and  regenerate  our  empire." 

The  year  1861  saw  the  death  of  Snltan  Abdul  Medjid, 
after  a  reign  of  nearly  twenty-two  years.  He  had  per- 
sistently endeavored  to  carry  out  the  reforms  of  his 
predecessor,  and  had  shown  remarkable  tact  and  firmness 
in  steering  through  the  troubles  with  which  he  was  sur- 
rounded ;  but  the  latter  part  of  his  reign  showed  that  the 


186  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

demoralizing  effect  of  the  repeated  loans  was  neutralizing 
all  that  was  done  in  the  way  of  reform,  and  rotting  the 
foundations  of  the  State.  The  expenditure  on  the  Civil 
List  became  exorbitant,  and  the  immense  marble  royal 
palace  at  Dolma-Baghtcheh  became  a  landmark  of  ex- 
travagance. He  was  succeeded  by  his  brother,  Abdul  Aziz, 
under  whose  reign  Turkey  was  to  sink  into  corruption. 
Great  were  the  hopes  entertained  of  the  new  Sultan  ;  and 
it  was  declared  that  under  his  able  reign  Turkey  was  to 
be  regenerated.  Upon  the  confidence  created  by  his  de- 
clared reforming  tendencies,  a  new  loan  was  obtained  for 
£8,000,000  sterling. 

It  soon  became  apparent  that  the  new  Sultan  was  under 
the  influence  of  his  mother,  the  Yalideh  Sultana,  and  she 
gradually  rose  to  be  the  principal  means  of  obtaining  ofiice. 
Whatever  appointment  was  wanted  or  whatever  trans- 
action was  to  be  carried  through,  the  approach  was  al- 
ways made  through  the  Yalideh  Sultana ;  and  if  sufficient 
backshish  was  forthcoming,  the  point  was  gained. 

The  form  of  corruption  increased  to  such  an  extent,  that 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  Sultan's  reign,  the  VaUs,  or 
governor-generals  of  the  vilaiets,  were  sometimes  changed 
every  month.  The  Yalideh  Sultana  contrived  to  keep  them 
shifting  round  in  their  places  like  the  buckets  in  a  water- 
wheel  ;  and  as  they  successively  poured  their  treasure 
into  her  lap,  she  found  it  so  profitable  that  she  gave  an 
impetus  to  the  velocity  of  the  wheel. 

This  was  an  expensive  process  for  the  governor-generals, 
and  so  they  recouped  themselves  from  their  districts.  In 
fact,  the  government  of  the  provinces  became  a  miserable 
farce. 

If  A  wanted  to  get  a  firman  to  start  a  manufactory,  or 
B  a  concession  to  work  a  mine,  or  C  was  in  difficulties  with 
a  complicated  law  case,  they  scraped  up  as  much  money 
as  they  could  collect,  and  were  off  to  Constantinople  to 
*'get"  (to  use  a  vulgar  phrase)  at  the  Yalideh  Sultana; 
and  there  they  would  remain  for  months,  driving  their 
bargain. 


DIFFICULTIES  OF  REFORM.  187 

Of  course  the  negotiations  were  carried  on  with  great 
art,  and  the  "backshish"  had  to  pass  through  and  cling 
to  many  hands  before  it  reached  the  old  lady. 

The  moment  a  Turkish  sultan  ascends  the  throne,  the 
discovery  is  made  that  he  is  endowed  with  extraordinary 
administrative  talents,  and  the  most  sanguine  hopes  are 
raised  for  reform  and  good  government.  This  is,  prob- 
ably, because  the  wish  is  father  to  the  thought ;  but  it 
is,  unfortunately,  but  too  often  disappointed. 

The  deposition  followed  by  the  suicide  of  Sultan  Abdul 
Aziz  placed  his  brother  Sultan  Mourad  on  the  throne  on 
May  30,  1876 ;  but,  notwithstanding  the  flowing  reports 
of  his  abilities,  it  was  soon  found  that  he  was  little  better 
than  an  imbecile,  and  he  was  wisely  deiDOsed  in  favor  of 
Sultan  Hamed,  who  has  certainly  sho-\vn  an  anxiety  for 
reform,  and  some  energy  ;  and  considering  the  very  diffi- 
cult crisis  in  which  he  finds  his  country,  it  seems  only  fair 
play  that  he  should  have  time  to  show  whether  he  is 
capable  of  cariying  out  his  promises.  But  whatever  his 
ability  or  energy  may  be,  there  is  not  much  hope  of  suc- 
cess so  long  as  the  foreign  machinery  for  hatching  rebel- 
lions is  allowed  to  have  full  play. 

Agitation  is  lil^e  froth — it  can  always  be  produced  by 
sufficient  friction,  and  under  any  circumstances ;  charges 
of  misgovernment  could  always  be  worked  up  against 
Turkey  or  any  other  country.  If  foreigners  were  to  read 
and  believe  the  accounts  of  some  of  the  gatherings  and 
speeches  at  the  Hyde  Park  meetings,  they  would  think 
that  the  English  Government  was  one  of  the  most  tyran- 
nical in  Europe.  How  easy,  therefore,  must  it  be  to  get 
up  a  "  case  "  against  Turkey !  but  how  cautious  we  ought 
to  be  in  believing  all  we  hear !  Every  robbery  and  every 
murder  that  occurs  in  Turkey  is  immediately  seized  upon 
and  bruited  about  to  the  discredit  of  the  Government. 
"What  false  impressions  might  be  given  by  a  florid  color- 
ing to  six  months  of  our  police  reports  in  England !  or 
supposing  the  accounts  of  the  "casual  ward,"  which  ap- 
peared in  the  Pall  Mall  Gazette  a  few  years  ago,  were 


188  TURRET  IN  EUROPE. 

now  recounted  as  happening  in  Turkey,  what  a  storm  of 
indignation  would  be  raised,  and  what  strong  language 
would  be  used  against  that  country  ! 

I  do  not  for  a  moment  pretend  that  Turkish  adminis- 
tration is  all  that  can  be  desired — I  think  I  have  shown 
that  it  is  very  far  fi^om  it, — ^but  it  is  certainly  not  anything 
like  as  bad  as  it  is  usually  painted. 

In  forming  our  judgment  on  the  Government  of  Turkey 
we  ought  to  take  into  consideration  the  very  great  diffi- 
culties with  which  it  has  to  contend,  and  we  ought  in 
justice  to  give  credit  for  work  done,  and  not  expect 
Turkish  reform  to  keep  pace  with  English  imagination. 
In  supiDort  of  what  I  have  said  as  to  actual  progress  made, 
I  will  quote  from  another  report  from  Consul-General 
Longworth,  made  in  1867 : — 

""Whatever  the  distance  left  between  the  promises  of 
the  Hatt-i-humayoun  and  the  Porte' s  perf onnances,  any- 
body who  faiiiy  and  soberly  takes  into  account  all  it  has 
to  contend  with,  must  feel  far  less  surprise  at  its  short- 
comings than  at  what  has  been  actually  done  by  it." 

In  Turkey  the  great  varieties  of  race  render  a  govern- 
ment possible  in  one  place  which  might  be  impossible  in 
another,  and  the  Porte  has  to  take  into  consideration  the 
religious  and  other  prejudices  of  the  people.  Just,  for 
instance,  as  we  allow  volunteers  in  England  and  Scotland, 
but  not  in  Ireland. 

In  explaining  how  this  may  be  misrepresented,  Consul- 
General  Longworth  says  : — 

*'  But  the  hand  which  had  been  so  long  heavy  on  the  Christians 
of  Macedonia  and  Upper  Albania,  and  more  particularly  in  the 
districts  of  Prilip,  Kiuprili,  Volo,  Uscub,  etc.,  has,  however 
reluctantly,  been  relaxed.  The  improvement  in  their  condition 
during  the  nine  years  I  was  Consul  at  Monastir  was  certainly, 
whatever  it  may  have  been  since,  undeniable.  The  area,  more- 
over, on  which  intolerance  was  thus  in  its  worst  features  dis- 
played, was  never  at  any  time  extensive,  and  even  at  present  the 
treatment  of  the  Christians  in  these  parts  would,  if  accurately 
depicted  to  the  House  of  Commons,  afford,  I  am  convinced,  a 


DIFFICULTIES  OF  ItEFOItM.  189 

most  inadequate  and  unjust  idea  of  the  general  treatment  of  the 
Christians  in  Turkey. 

"  But  in  parts  of  the  country  where  the  authority  of  the  Cen- 
tral Government  is  better  established,  the  experience  I  speak  from 
I  can  trust  as  a  voucher  of  progress  to  be  better  relied  upon,  and 
the  fact  of  my  having  visited  and  revisited  such  places  at  long 
intervals  may  have  served  to  render  this  more  striking.  When 
first  I  became  acquainted  with  Turkey,  which  was  more  than 
thirty  years  ago,  I  could  never  have  expected  to  see  social  equality 
realized  to  the  extent  it  has  now  been,  and  that  in  so  short  a 
j)eriod.  Ten  years  later  the  Eayah  had  begun  to  take  his  seat  in 
the  Medjlis,  but  his  abject  spirit  and  obsequious  dependent  habits, 
quite  as  much  as  his  want  of  experience  in  affairs,  made  him  unfit 
for  such  functions  ;  he  usually  sat  crouched  in  a  corner,  and  gave 
a  silent  vote  on  all  occasions.  As  years  went  by  his  position  im- 
proved ;  what  the  Christians  wanted  in  rank  and  dignity,  they 
made  up  for  by  wealth  and  intelligence.  They  now  claim  equal 
representation,  and,  in  some  places,  even  a  majority  of  votes  in 
the  Mixed  Assemblies. 

"In  those  of  Eustchuk  and  Widdin,  when  I  visited  those  places 
in  1865,  I  was  surprised  to  see  the  independent  Burgesses  (Tchor- 
badjees)  in  European  costume,  fairly  educated,  and  freely  dis- 
cussing the  interests  of  the  community  with  the  Pasha  and  other 
administrative  and  legal  authorities.  Such  changes,  it  may  be 
supposed,  could  not  have  been  effected  in  the  Eayah  without  a 
corresponding  transformation  of  the  Turk,  the  contrast  of  whose 
present  demeanor  to  the  Christian  with  that  which  I  once  re- 
member it  to  have  been  is  indeed  remarkable  ;  the  only  parallel 
I  can  think  of  for  that  which  it  used  to  be  is  in  conduct  equally 
unjust  —  perhaps  unreasonable  and  arrogant  —  which  has  been 
recently  exhibited  by  orthodox  and  Catholic  Europeans  to  the 
Turks." 

Again,  in  alluding  to  otlier  matters  in  the  same  report, 
he  says : — 

"In  a  mixed  commission  for  the  settlement  of  debts  between 
Turks  and  Christians,  and  the  proceedings  of  which  have  been 
brought  to  my  notice,  some  300  or  400  claims  have  been  respec- 
tively brought  forward  on  both  sides.  On  the  part  of  the  Turks 
they  were,  without  exception,  whether  substantiated  by  written 


190  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

receipts  or  oral  testimony,  at  once  admitted.  Of  those  preferred 
in  the  same  manner  against  the  Christians,  how  many  will  it  be 
supposed  were  in  the  first  instance  acknowledged  by  the  parties 
themselves  ?  Not  one.  If  it  be  further  asked  how  Christians 
could  have  possibly  sunk  to  so  low  a  level  of  morality  as  to  for- 
swear themselves  in  this  wholesale  manner,  I  cannot  positively 
say,  but  I  have  a  shrewd  suspicion  how  it  has  happened. 

'*  Nothing  has  a  more  demoralizing  effect  than  conscious  power 
operating  on  the  minds  of  the  sordid  multitude,  particularly  when 
they  can  make  a  merit  of  robbery  in  a  fancied  spoiling  of  the 
Egyptians.  It  is  curious,  on  the  other  hand,  to  trace  the  retrib- 
utive effect  of  a  vicious  system.  The  legal  fiction  whereby  the 
evidence  of  Mussulmans  was  substituted  for  that  of  Christians  in. 
the  Mehkemeh  must  have  tended  not  only  to  vitiate  its  proceed- 
ings, but  have  inspired  Christians  with  indifference  to  perjury  in. 
their  dealings  with  Mussulmans. 

"The  treatment  of  the  Christians  in  Turkey  with  reference  to 
the  pledges  of  the  Hatt-i-Humayoun  opens  an  interminable  field 
of  inquiry  ;  even  as  the  document  itself  confers  on  those  invest- 
ed with  this  inquisitorial  power  the  unlimited  right  of  inter- 
ference. At  least  this  is  the  construction  put  upon  it ;  and  the 
most  comjilete  conquest  ever  made  of  a  nation,  that  which  enti- 
tles the  conqueror  to  say  '*  woe  to  the  vanquished,"  has  never 
conferred  a  right  more  sweeping,  vexatious,  and  intolerable  than 
this.  And  yet  Turke}'',  I  need  scarcely  say,  was  not  among  the 
vanquished.  And  if,  as  we  continually  hear,  we  and  others 
fought  her  battles  for  her,  we  did  so  not  more,  it  may  be  an- 
swered, than  she  ours  for  us. 

"  Public  opinion,  or  those  who  pi'ofess  to  be  its  guides,  declare 
that  such  a  league  can  never  be  renewed,  which  means,  I  suppose, 
our  interests  can  never  again  prompt  us  thereto.  However  that 
may  be,  it  is  no  reason  we  should  concur  in  the  rash  judgments, 
but  deliberate  bad  faith,  in  the  false  suggestion  and  suborned  tes- 
timony, by  which  Turkey  is  now  in  the  course  of  being  overborne 
and  undermined. 

"  The  great  mistake  is  leaving  nothing  to  time.  Time  alone 
can  bridge  a  period  of  transition,  reconcile  interests,  and  obliter- 
ate scars.  This  is  the  reason,  too,  why  it  is  so  much  easier  for 
some  of  the  conquered  races  than  for  others  to  make  their  peaco 
with  the  Ottoman  ;  they  are  more  patient  than  the  rest." 


DIFFICULTIES  OF  REFORM.  191 

This  is  all  strong  evidence  of  how  necessary  it  is  to  be 
cautious  in  forming  a  hasty  judgment  on  Turkish  admin- 
istration. I  beg  my  reader  to  compare  the  foregoing  re- 
ports, written  in  1867,  with  the  report  I  have  given  as  writ- 
ten by  the  same  gentleman  in  1860,  and  it  will  at  once  be 
apparent  how  great  a  stride  was  made  on  the  path  of  re- 
form in  that  short  space  of  time.  The  execution  of  the 
law  greatly  depends  upon  the  character  of  the  governor 
of  the  district,  consequently  we  may  find  the  rei)orts  from 
one  quarter  all  that  can  be  desired,  while  from  another  the 
reverse  is  the  case.  The  following  description  from  Consul 
Stuart  in  Epirus,  in  1867,  although  it  is  favorable  to  the 
Turk  in  the  way  of  religious  toleration,  shows  what  in- 
justice may  be  perpetrated  through  the  absence  of  an 
honest  head  to  watch  over  the  conduct  of  the  Courts  : — 

"1.  Religious  Liherty. — This  principle  is  here  scrupulously 
respected.  All  the  Christians  in  Epirus,  with  the  exception  of  a 
few  foreigners,  belong  to  the  Greek  Church.  The  places  of  wor- 
ship are  numeroiis,  their  services  are  frequent,  and  some  of  their 
ceremonies  and  processions  are  attended  with  much  public  dis- 
play. But  they  are  never  interfered  with  in  their  religious  exer- 
cises ;  complaints  of  disrespect  or  contempt  toward  their  faith 
are  rarely,  if  ever,  heard ;  and  during  a  residence  of  nearly  six 
years  in  the  country,  only  two  or  three  instances  have  come  to 
my  knowledge  of  indignity  offered  to  Christianity.  In  one  case 
little  boys  were  the  offenders,  and  due  amends  were  offered  by 
their  parents.  In  another,  some  grain  was  deposited  by  a  Mussul- 
man proprietor  in  a  church,  but  on  complaint  being  made,  it  was 
at  once  removed  by  order  of  the  local  governor,  and  the  act  was 
publicly  censured.  In  some  places  where  the  inhabitants  are  in 
part  Mussulmans,  bells  are  not  allowed  in  the  Christian  churches. 
This  is  commonly  put  forward  as  a  grievance.  The  term  * '  Giaour  " 
is  sometimes  applied  in  contempt  to  Christians  ;  terms  of  religious 
contumely  are,  I  believe,  in  common  use  in  every  country  where 
different  forms  of  religion  co-exist. 

"9..  Judicial  Rights. — The  administration  of  justice  is  extremely 
defective  in  this  country.  The  tribunals,  with  the  exception  of 
the  Mehkemeh,  or  Court  of  the  Sacred  Law,  are  all  composed  of 
standing  members  who  exercise  the  functions  of  judge  and  jury, 


192  TUEKET  IN  EUROPE. 

and  who  are  cliosen  in  given  proportions  from  tlie  diiferent  reli- 
gious denominations  :  the  Preside  at  being  always  a  Mussulman. 
All  these  courts  are  characterized  by  the  deepest  corruption  and 
venality.  Judgments  are  sold  with  but  little  attempt  at  conceal- 
ment ;  so  that  in  suits  between  Ottoman  subjects,  and  sometimes, 
too,  when  others  are  concerned,  the  verdict  is  commonly  in  favor 
of  the  party  which  pays  best.  The  proceedings  of  the  courts, 
moreover,  are  out  of  all  reason  dilatory.  As  a  rule  the  examina- 
tion of  a  case  depends  on  the  pleasure  of  the  court,  and  is  en- 
treated as  a  favor  rather  than  demanded  as  a  right.  Judgment 
is  but  too  often  suspended  for  no  other  reason  than  to  give  time 
for  underhand  solicitations,  and  to  see  which  of  the  litigants  will 
bid  highest  for  their  verdict. 

*'  Such  is  the  general  character  of  the  courts  of  law  in  this 
country.  No  government  can  be  blameless  that  sanctions  or  per- 
mits a  system  so  fraught  with  mischief  to  the  first  interests  of 
society.  All  the  odium,  however,  must  not  be  thrown  on  the 
Turks  ;  a  large  share  of  it  belongs  to  the  Christians — first,  to 
those  who  are  members  of  the  different  courts,  and  who  are  in 
general  more  dexterous  and  not  less  keen  than  their  colleagues  in 
turning  to  account  the  opportunities  at  their  command  ;  secondly, 
to  the  mass  of  the  Christian  community  who,  while  continually 
complaining  of  the  injustice  of  their  rulers,  are  ever  ready  to 
profit  by  the  vicious  administration  of  the  law,  and  are  by  no 
means,  it  is  believed,  desirous  that  it  should  be  changed  for  the 
better. 

Personal  Treatment. — My  experience  in  this  country  contra- 
dicts what  is  commonly  said  of  the  wanton  cruelty  of  Mussul- 
mans toward  their  Christian  fellow-subjects.  Cases  of  brutality 
no  doubt  occur  here,  as  they  do  in  every  country  ;  but  I  do  not 
believe  that  the  Christians  are  habitually  subjected  to  personal  ill- 
treatment.  Like  all  Orientals,  they  are  adepts  in  the  art  of  com- 
plaint, and  of  telling  piteous  stories ;  with  admirable  skill  they 
can  feign  distress,  and  get  up  moving  scenes  of  a  nature  to 
awaken  sympathy  in  their  favor,  and  to  beget  aversion  toward 
those  whom  they  hate.  But  the  truth  is,  that  many  Christains 
in  humble  life  choose  to  serve  Mussulmans  rather  than  persons 
of  their  own  faith.  Mussulmans,  as  landlords,  have  the  name  of 
being  more  easy  than  Christians  ;  as  employers,  more  liberal ;  as 
masters,  more  indulgent.    They  are  in  every  way  more  consider- 


DIFFICULTIES  OF  REFORM,  I93 

ate  for  their  dependents  ;  and,  -R^liat  is  too  common  with  the 
Christians,  they  rarely  cast  ofi  a  sick  or  worn-out  follower. 

What  a  different  picture  we  find  here  to  that  cast  whole- 
sale among  the  public  by  agitators  who  have  never  been 
in  Turkey.  The  late  rebellion  in  Herzegovina  is  another 
instance  of  the  system  of  hatching  rebellion  (such  as 
occurred  in  Crete,  and  has  since  occurred  in  Bulgaria), 
and  the  following  letters  from  Consul  Holmes  are  evidence 

of  the  fact : — 

Bosna-Serai,  July  2,  1875. 
"  I  have  the  honor  to  report  to  your  Lordship  that  there  is  dis- 
turbance in  the  Herzegovina.  Early  last  winter,  some  164  of  the 
inhabitants  of  the  district  of  Nevessin  left  their  homes  and  went 
into  Montenegro.  After  remaining  there  some  months,  however, 
they  petitioned  the  Porte  to  be  allowed  to  return  to  Kevessin. 
The  governor-general  advised  the  Porte  to  reply,  that  as  they  had 
chosen  to  leave  their  country  for  Montenegro,  they  might  remain 
there.  The  Government,  however,  decided  to  accept  their  re- 
quest, and  allowed  them  to  return.  Shortly  afterwards  they 
appeared  in  revolt,  declared  that  they  were  oppressed,  refusing  to 
pay  their  taxes  or  to  admit  the  police  among  them,  and  they  have 
been  endeavoring  by  intimidation  to  cause  their  neighbors  in  the 
surrounding  districts  to  join  them.  The  Mutessarif  of  Mostar 
invited  them  to  come  to  that  place  to  state  their  grievances,  which 
he  assured  them  would  be  redressed,  but  they  refused,  and  the 
governor-general  tells  me  that  they  cut  to  pieces  a  man  quite  un- 
connected with  them  who  had  gone  to  Mostar  to  seek  redress  for 
some  grievance,  and  threatened  with  the  same  fate  any  within, 
their  reach  who  should  do  so  in  future.  The  governor-general 
informs  me  that  at  present  he  has  no  intention  of  sending  troops 
against  them,  but  will  prevent  their  efforts  to  extend  their  revolt 
by  surrounding  these  districts  with  policemen,  and  he  will  proba- 
bly send  some  of  the  notables  of  Serajevo  to  endeavor  to  bring 
them  to  reason.     Thus  the  matter  stands  at  present." 

Bosna-Serai,  July  9,  1875. 
"  With  reference  to  my  despatch  of  the  2nd  July,  regarding 
the  disturbances  in  the  Herzegovina,  I  have  the  honor  to  inform 
your  Lordship  that  on  the  same  day  the  governor-general  sent 
13 


194  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

Haidar  Bey  and  Petrarclii  Effendi,  two  notables  of  Serajevo,  to 
communicate  with  the  insurgents,  who  belong  to  the  four  vil- 
lages of  Loukavach,  Sovidol,  Belgrade,  and  Terrousine,  in  the  dis- 
trict of  Nevessin. 

"Before  they  reached  these  villages,  however,  the  disaffected 
peasants,  who  had  forced  and  persuaded  many  others  to  Join 
them,  had  attacked  and  captured  a  caravan  of  twenty-five  horses  on 
the  road  from  Mostar  to  Nevessin,  belonging  to  some  merchants  of 
Serajevo,  laden  with  rice,  sugar,  and  coffee,  which  they  carried  off 
to  the  village  of  Odrichnia.  At  the  same  time  they  murdered  and 
decapitated  five  Turkish  travelers,  named  Salih  Kassumovich, 
Marich,  Samich,  Ali  of  Nevessin,  and  another  whose  name  is  not 
yet  known,  a  native  of  Hrasne.  One  of  the  insurgents,  named 
Tchoubate,  at  the  head  of  about  300  followers,  drove  away  forty 
zaptiehs  placed  in  the  defile  of  Stolatz,  and  separating  into  small 
bands,  have  for  the  moment  intercepted  the  various  roads  in  tho 
neighborhood.  One  band  is  stationed  at  the  bridge  over  the 
Kruppa,  and  renders  the  road  between  Mostar  and  Meteovich  un- 
safe. The  detached  bands  of  insurgents  are  endeavoring  to  force 
others  to  join  them  by  burning  the  houses  of  those  who  refuse  to 
do  so,  and  other  means  of  intimidation. 

"  The  Governor-General  has  received  telegrams  from  Mostar, 
signed  by  the  two  commissioners  and  the  Mutessarif  and  com- 
mander of  the  troops  at  Mostar,  stating  these  facts  ;  also  that  the 
headless  bodies  of  the  Turks  have  been  recovered  and  buried. 
Under  these  circumstances  the  commissioners  hesitated  to  con- 
tinue their  journey  ;  and  the  authorities  at  Mostar  state  that 
great  excitement  prevails  throughout  the  Mussulman  population, 
who  are  impatient  to  attack  the  insurgents  and  avenge  the  savage 
murders  of  their  co-religionists,  whose  decapitation  has  jmrticu- 
larly  roused  their  feelings  ;  and  requesting  five  battalions  to  keep 
order." 

Such  was  the  commencement  of  the  rebellion,  and  the 
following  extract  from  a  letter  from  Consul  Holmes,  dated 
Sept.  28,  1875,  is  evidence  of  how  it  was  worked : — 

"  Our  colleagues  of  Austria,  Germany,  and  Italy  arrived  at 
Mostar  on  the  23rd,  with  the  same  impressions  and  the  same 
results  as  ourselves. 


DIFFICULTIES  OF  REFOUM  195 

"  The  chiefs  of  the  insurgents  demanded  a  European  interyen- 
tion  and  an  armistice  to  allow  them  to  consult  and  assemble  at  any 
place  which  might  be  fixed  to  discuss  their  affairs.  They  do  not, 
and  never  have  desired  independence  or  annexation  to  Montene- 
gro, but  they  wish  to  remain  Turkish  subjects  under  very  exten- 
sive administrative  reforms,  the  execution  of  which  to  be  guaran- 
teed by  Europe. 

**  Whatever  your  Excellency  may  hear  to  the  contrary,  I  can 
assure  you  that,  in  the  Herzegovina,  the  only  part  of  the  people 
wishing  for  annexation  to  Montenegro  are  the  districts  adjoining 
the  frontier  from  Sutorina  to  Kolashine.  These  districts  are 
mere  rocks,  the  scanty  population  herdsmen ;  and  they  are  a 
burden  rather  than  a  profit  to  Turkey.  The  frontier  districts  of 
Bilokia  receive  annually : — 

Piastres.       Piastres. 

From  the  Government  for  the  pay  of  Pandours 124,000 

And  pay  for  taxes 93,284 

Which  leaves  a  charge  on  the  Government  of 30,716 

The  districts  of  Trebigne  receive 123,000 

And  pay  for  taxes 54,400 

68,600 

Those  of  Piva  receive 128,250 

And  pay  for  taxes 108,594 

19,656 

118,973 

*'  Thus  these  districts  are  an  absolute  annual  loss  to  the  Porte 
of  about  119,000  piastres.  In  Bosnia,  almost  to  a  man,  the  popu- 
lation would  refuse  to  be  annexed  to  Servia  or  Austria,  and  they 
have  never  dreamed  of  independence,  which  from  the  nature  of 
circumstances  and  the  state  of  education,  is  impracticable.  They 
also  only  wish  to  be  Turkish  subjects,  but  to  be  governed  with 
justice,  and  placed  on  an  equality  in  law  with  the  Mussulman 
compatriots. 

"  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  Mussulmans  and  Christians  agree 
much  better  in  Bosnia  than  in  the  Herzegovina,  where  there  is 
much  more  oppression  to  complain  of  ;  at  the  same  time,  ac- 
quainted as  I  am  with  the  social  condition  of  the  country  during 
fifteen  years,  I  do  not  hesitate  to  declare  that  the  oppression  in  the 
Herzegovina  in  general  is  greatly  exaggerated  by  the  Christians, 
and  that  the  discontent  which  undoubtedly  exists  against  most  of 


196  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

the  chief  Turkish  landowners,  and  against  the  zaptiehs  and  tax- 
farmers,  has  leeii  the  excuse  rather  than  the  cause  of  the  revolt, 
which  was  assuredly  arranged  lij  Servian  agitators  and  accom- 
plished ly  force.  The  mass  of  the  inhabitants,  imaryned,  had  no 
choice.  Their  homes  were  devastated  and  their  lives  threatened, 
and  they  were  ordered  to  follow  their  leaders.  And  noio  the  ruin 
is  such  that  those  who  wish  to  submit  cannot.  They  have  no  homes 
to  go  to,  and  the  armed  bands  threaten  all  ivho  breathe  a  ivhisperof 
submissio7i.  These  bands  are  all  formed  of  a  mixture  of  peojyle 
from  different  parts  of  the  country,  and  all  mutually  watch  each 
other  to  preve?it  any  combination  to  submit. 

"  The  ruin  and  devastation  in  the  plain  of  Kevessin  and  along 
all  the  Dalmatian  frontier,  and  wherever  the  insurgents  have 
passed,  is  piteous  to  behold,  and  renders  any  satisfactory  arrange- 
ment more  hopeless  than  it  would  otherwise  have  been. 

"  Your  Excellency  will  observe  that  I  have  passed  over  the 
grievances  of  which  the  insurgents  complain  in  a  few  general 
terms,  because  I  think  that  at  present  the  principal  question  is 
how  to  put  an  end  as  soon  as  possible  to  the  actual  state  of  affairs, 
which  is  apparently  a  complete  deadlock." 

Now,  I  would  beg  my  reader  to  remember  how  the 
attempt  to  get  up  a  rebellion  in  Bulgaria  in  1868  was 
managed  (page  i'^3  ),  and  how  completely  it  failed,  owing  to 
the  energy  of  Midhat  Pasha,  but  how  exactly  similar  the 
programme  was  to  what  is  now  enacted.  If  the  oppression 
of  the  Herzegovina  Christians  was  as  great  as  represented, 
how  is  it  that  they  were  satisfied  to  remain  as  subjects  of 
the  Sultan,  and  did  not  cry  out  for  annexation  to  civilized 
Austria,  their  near  neighbor,  or  to  free  and  independent 
Servia?  The  testimony  of  a  gentleman  like  Consul 
Holmes,  who  could  have  no  possible  object  or  interest  in 
misrepresenting  facts,  may  be  assumed  to  be  accurate ;  but 
when  we  see  the  manner  in  which  the  rebellion  was 
fomented,  and  the  thorough  organization  from  •^i.thout  by 
which  it  was  carried  on,  we  must  receive  all  reports  from 
committees  of  the  rebels  with  the  greatest  caution  and 
doubt. 

A  broad  distinction  must  be  drawn  between  the  Turkish 


DIFFICULTIES  OF  REFORM.  I97 

people  and  their  rulers — the  former  deserve  mucli  praise, 
and  the  latter  great  blame.  But  a  large  share  of  the  blame 
is  attributable  to  the  corrupt  reign  of  Sultan  Abdul  Aziz, 
and  it  is  in  the  power  of  a  wise  and  honest  sovereign  to 
right  the  ship  yet. 

A  hard  task,  however,  devolves  upon  him,  as  the  seeds 
of  corruption  have  taken  firm  root  in  all  parts  of  the 
empire,  and  time  is  necessary  to  eradicate  them. 

The  machinery  and  organization  of  the  administration 
is  all  that  could  be  desired,  which  is  a  great  step  in 
advance,  so  that  it  is  not  necessary  to  pass  new  laws,  but 
only  to  cany  out  with  justice  those  which  already  exist. 
Mohammedans  have  suffered  from  the  maladministration 
of  justice  just  as  much,  and  even  more,  than  the  Christians, 
but  they  have  borne  it  with  greater  patience. 

The  Turks  themselves,  high  and  low,  have  for  some 
years  past  sighed  over  the  state  into  which  their  country 
was  sinking  ;  and  as  they  truly  said,  it  was  not  the  fault 
of  the  nation,  but  of  the  corrupt  and  all-powerful  head. 
I  was  talking  to  a  highly  educated  and  exceedingly  clever 
Turk  a  few  months  ago  about  the  affairs  of  his  country, 
and  I  asked  him  what  he  considered  as  its  greatest 
necessity.  He  replied,  "  Justice  within  and  justice  from 
withoiit." 

The  Turkish  administrators  find  themselves  in  the  posi- 
tion of  being  in  possession  of  an  article — patronage — for 
which  there  is  an  eager  demand,  and  they  sell  it  to  the 
highest  bidder,  and  vdth  it  the  interests  of  their  country. 
But  it  is  not  venality  alone  that  is  the  cause  of  the  short- 
comings of  Turkey.  There  are  other  nations  quite  as 
venal,  and  yet  they  advance  rapidly  in  civilization.  The 
apathy  and  procrastination  in  every  department  of  the 
State,  great  and  small,  in  every  private  house,  high  and 
low,  in  every  transaction,  however  important  or  however 
trifling,  are  the  causes  which  attenuate  progress  to  such 
meagre  dimensions.  The  Turkish  ofiicial  seldom  refuses, 
but  always  postpones. 

If  I  had  to  devise  a  Turkish  banner,  I  should  inscribe 


198  TURKEY  m  EUROPE. 

on  one  side  of  it,  "Evet  Effendim"  (Certainly,  Sir),  on  tlie 
other,  "Yarin"  (To-morrow),  and  below,  tlie  motto, 
"There  is  but  one  God,  and  backsliish  is  Ms  prophet." 
The  Christians  in  Turkey  possess  these  faults  quite  as 
much,  and  even  more,  than  the  Ottomans,  who  indeed 
were  inoculated  with  them  on  their  conquest  of  the  coun- 
try. So  long  as  they  exist,  so  long  must  Turkey  lag  in 
the  path  of  progress,  and  the  only  means  of  cure  are 
railways,  telegraph,  and  time. 


CHAPTER  XL 

EX   EOUTE  AGAIIS". 

Turkish  Cavalry— The  Chatal  Dagli  —  Slivmia— Cloth  Factories  —  Turkish 
Justice — A  Turkish  foi-m  of  Friendship — Geology  of  the  Balkan— Land 
of  the  Bulgarian  Atrocities — A  Turk  in  adversity — A  Hurricane — Yeni 
Zaghra — Turkish  Officials — Eski  Zaghra — Anarchy  in  Turkey — Silver 
Factory — A  Bedridden  Interpreter — Kezanlik — Attar  of  Eose. 

"VrOW  tliat  we  have  examined  the  character  of  the 
-l-^  Turk,  and  found  from  whence  he  came  and  how  he 
found  his  way  to  Europe,  and  all  the  troubles  he  has 
brought  upon  himself  by  changing  his  nomad  nature,  we 
will  return  to  Yanboli,  and  continue  our  travels  among 
Ottoman  subjects.  Our  next  ride  was  to  Slivmia,  or 
Slimno,  or  Islivne,  or  Islandje,  for  I  beg  my  reader  not  to 
consider  that  any  of  the  names  of  places  found  in  my 
work  have  any  claim  to  accuracy  of  spelling ;  on  the  con- 
trary, they  are  merely  spelled  phonetically,  as  the  sounds 
fell  upon  my  ear.  It  would  only  be  pedantic  to  attempt 
to  do  otherwise,  for  there  are  as  many  ways  of  spelling 
the  names  of  Turldsh  towns  as  there  are  maps  of  Turkey, 
and  even  in  the  country  itself  the  same  town  is  called  by 
different  names  by  different  races. 

After  clearing  the  vineyards  of  Yanboli,  which  are  very 
extensive,  and  must  occupy  as  much  as  two  thousand 
acres  of  land,  we  rose  a  long  and  gentle  incline  for  about 
an  hour,  and  the  monotony  of  the  dreary  corn-growing 
country  was  only  relieved  by  the  sight  of  an  untidy -look- 
ing squadron  of  wretchedly  mounted  Turkish  cavalry. 
What  would  Togrul  Beg,  who  was  the  son  of  Michel,  who 
was  the  son  of  Seljuk,  have  said  of  these  miserable  de- 
scendants of  his  renowned  horse  ? 

199 


200  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

On  cresting  tlie  liill  we  were  rewarded  for  our  dreary 
ride  by  a  most  cliarming  view  of  the  Balkan  Mountains, 
rising  from  a  long  plain  which,  stretched  before  us,  with 
groves  of  trees  here  and  there,  which  marked  the  sites  of 
villages.  The  large  and  important  town  of  Slivmia  lay 
snugly  at  the  foot  of  the  Chatal  Dagh,  which  rises  to  a 
height  of  3,575  feet  above  the  sea,  and  appeared  about 
four  miles  off ;  but  distance  is  very  deceptive  in  the  clear 
air  of  that  country,  and  we  found  the  four  miles  length- 
ened themselves  out  to  twelve  before  we  arrived  at  the 
town.  The  appearance  of  the  mountains  here  is  very  pe- 
culiar. The  quartz-porphyry  range  of  the  Chatal  Dagh 
rises  in  Jagged  peaks  and  rocks  and  eccentric  forms  of  a 
dark  and  sombre  color,  out  of  the  smooth  and  rounded 
outlines  of  the  calcareous  mountains  on  each  side  of  it, 
and  the  jagged  outline  of  the  great  mass  of  this  eruptive 
rock  is  most  distinctly  marked,  and  gives  much  grandeur 
to  the  scenery,  which  is  here  very  varied.  Such  was  the 
view  to  the  north,  while  away  to  the  southward,  far  in  the 
distance,  rose  the  high  tortoise-back  of  the  Sakar  Bair,  a 
great  syenite  mountain,  which  seems  to  have  done  some- 
thing to  offend  cartograiDhers,  for  although  it  rises  to  a 
height  of  3,000  feet  above  the  sea,  it  is  not  noticed  in  most 
maps.  Brophy  had  telegraphed  to  a  Polish  friend  to  ex- 
pect us,  and  after  about  five  hours'  ride  through  culti- 
vated land,  and  past  several  Bulgarian  villages,  some  with 
the  minaret  peeping  through  the  trees,  to  mark  the  creed 
of  the  inhabitants,  and  others  with  the  less  conspicuous 
Greek  Church,  we  approached  the  handsome  town  of 
Slivmia. 

"We  were  most  hospitably  received  by  the  Polish  engi- 
neer, who  made  us  comfortable  in  his  well-shaded  house, 
which  rejoiced  in  a  large  veranda  formed  of  a  trellis- 
work  of  vines,  with  luscious  bunches  of  grapes  within 
tempting  reach. 

Roughly  speaking,  I  should  say  that  Slivmia  contained 
twenty-five  thousand  inhabitants,  composed  of  Turks, 
Bulgarians,  and  a  few  Greeks,  Jews,  and  gipsies.    It  is 


CLOTH  FACTORIES.  201 

the  seat  of  a  Liva,  and  a  military  station  for  a  regiment  of 
cavalry  and  infantry,  and  also  a  battery  of  artillery. 

I  had  been  told  that  there  were  no  mannfactories  in 
Turkey,  but  I  here  found  one  for  making  cloth  which 
would  have  done  credit  to  England.  It  is  a  Government 
institution,  and  turns  out  200,000  yards  of  cloth  annually 
for  the  army.  I  noticed  that  the  machinery  was  all  Bel- 
gian. All  the  women  employed  are  gipsies.  They  were 
a  wild-looking  set,  some  of  the  girls  hideously  ugly,  and 
others  remarkably  pretty,  with  that  lively,  careless,  and 
independent  air  which  is  so  characteristic  of  the  nation. 
I  was  told  that  morality  was  not  one  of  their  virtues,  but 
they  are  kept  in  excellent  order  while  in  the  factory. 
The  town  is  kept  healthy  and  clean  by  running  streams 
led  from  the  mountains,  and  which  ramify  through  the 
whole  place.  All  the  slaughter-houses  are  obliged  to  be 
in  one  quarter,  and  the  animals  are  killed  over  the  stream, 
which  prevents  effluvium. 

I  now  had  an  experience  of  a  Turkish  court,  Brophy 
having  a  case  to  bring  before  it.  The  Governor,  Djavid 
Pasha,  had  appointed  the  next  morning  for  his  attend- 
ance, and  the  case  was  follows  : — 

The  Consul  had  an  English  bailiff,  who,  while  sitting  in 
a  khan,  where  the  favorite  spirit  of  the  country,  raki,  was 
abundant,  fancied  himself  insulted  by  a  young  Turk  of 
good  family,  but  who  had  been  partaking  too  freely  of  the 
national  stimulant.  The  Englishman  walked  tip  to  the 
Turk  to  expostulate,  and  whether  the  latter  thought  by 
the  expression  of  his  countenance  that  he  looked  danger- 
ous, I  cannot  say,  but  he  drew  his  sword,  and,  Turkish 
fashion,  attempted  to  hit  him  with  the  back  of  it.  Bro- 
phy, who  was  present,  flew  at  the  Turk,  and  a  scuffle  en- 
sued ;  but  swords  are  sharp  things  to  rough  and  tumble 
over,  and  the  result  was  that  all  three  parties  suffered 
from  some  trifling  cuts. 

Brophy  complained  to  the  Caimakam  of  his  district,  and 
was  informed  that  the  Turk  was  imprisoned.  This  was 
literally  true,  but  he  was  let  out  again  the  next  day,  and 


202  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

was  now  at  large.  Brophy  took  tlie  matter  up  seriously, 
and  the  result  was  the  presence  of  both  parties  before  the 
Pasha,  or  governor  of  the  Liva,  with  whom  Brophy  hap- 
pened to  be  acquainted.  The  Turk  belonged  to  a  family 
of  very  great  influence,  and  it  was  a  delicate  case. 

We  made  our  way  to  the  konak,  or  government  house, 
and  were  ushered  into  th.Q  presence  of  the  Pasha,  who 
received  us  with  great  cordiality.  Turkish  courts  are  all 
alike,  so  if  I  describe  one  I  describe  all.  It  will  not  take 
much  s]3ace,  as  the  only  furniture  is  a  carpet,  with  a  divan 
all  round  the  room,  and  one  small  table  for  the  Pasha' s 
ink,  etc.  The  courts  are  open,  and  anybody  may  enter 
and  listen  to  any  case  which  may  be  going  on.  We  were 
given  the  seats  of  honor  close  to  the  Pasha,  and  coffee  and 
cigarettes  were  produced,  and  while  we  were  disposing 
of  them,  several  petitions  were  presented,  upon  which  the 
Pasha  made  his  notes  after  conferring  with  the  Cadi,  or 
judge,  who  sat  on  his  right.  It  is  the  custom  in  Turkey 
never  to  approach  any  subject  of  business  until  you  have 
wasted  some,  perhaps,  precious  minutes  in  talking  about 
generalities,  and  after  this  form  had  been  gone  through, 
the  Pasha  commenced  to  regret  that  Brophy  should  have 
been  put  to  so  much  annoyance  by  a  hot-headed  and 
drunken  young  man,  who  was  constantly  getting  into 
trouble. 

It  was  a  matter  which  must  either  be  treated  with  the 
greatest  gravity,  or  with  the  contempt  which  it  deserved, 
and  he  should  strongly  advise  the  latter  course,  which,  if 
Brophy  agreed  to  follow,  he  (the  Pasha)  would  call  up  the 
young  Turk  before  the  whole  court,  and  make  him  pub- 
licly apologize  for  his  offense.  Would  the  Consular  Bey 
take  a  day  to  think  over  it,  and  attend  again  to-morrow  ? 

After  we  had  left  the  court,  I  felt  that  under  all  the  cir- 
cumstances the  Pasha  had  given  good  advice,  and  I 
strongly  recommended  Brophy  to  accept  it,  which  he  de- 
termined to  do.  The  next  day  we  attended,  and  first  met 
the  Pasha  in  a  private  room.  As  soon  as  the  generalities 
were  got  over,  Brophy  informed  him  of  his  decision.     It 


WIXE  AND  THE  KORAK  203 

was  evidently  a  great  relief  to  his  miiid,  but  1  was  not  a 
little  astonislied  at  his  method  of  showing  his  delight. 
Selecting  \^ith  care  a  particular  hair  in  Brophy's  whiskers, 
he,  with  a  sudden  jerk,  di-agged  it  out,  and  assured  him 
he  was  his  best  and  firmest  friend.  Brophy  rubbed  his 
cheek,  as  he  took  the  compliment  quite  complacently,  and 
I  afterwards  learned  that  in  Turkish  society  this  plucking 
out  a  man's  beard  by  the  roots  is  considered  a  mark  of 
great  condescension  and  friendship. 

We  now  adjourned  to  the  court,  which  was  well  filled. 
The  young  Turk  was  brought  in  as  a  prisoner,  and  in  a 
very  dignified  manner  the  Pasha  informed  him  that  the 
Consular  Bey,  with  great  condescension  and  generosity, 
and  in  consideration  of  the  feelings  of  his  family,  had  con- 
sented to  overlook  his  offense,  and  accept  an  apology  ; 
that  he  might  consider  himself  fortunate  that  he  did  not 
get  a  month' s  imprisonment,  and  had  it  not  been  for  his 
youth  that  punishment  would  certainly  have  been  inflicted 
upon  him.  The  Pasha  then  rated  him  most  severely,  and 
ordered  him  to  apologize.  Whereupon  the  young  Turk 
stepped  forward  before  the  whole  court,  humbly  took 
Brophy's  hand,  kissed  it,  and  demanded  pardon. 

I  have  given  the  details  of  this  case,  of  which  I  was  an 
eye-witness,  because  it  was  an  influential  Turk  versus  a 
Christian  in  a  Turkish  court,  and  I  must  confess  that  the 
Pasha  showed  much  common  sense  as  well  as  justice  in  the 
way  in  which  he  dealt  vdth  a  very  delicate  case. 

I  have  elsewhere  alluded  to  the  sobriety  of  the  Turks, 
and  this  case  and  others  to  which  I  may  have  to  allude 
may  appear  like  a  contradiction,  but  I  applied  the  term  to 
the  people  generally,  and  not  to  the  upper  classes,  and 
especially  government  officials,  who,  I  am  sorry  to  say, 
sometimes  drink  spirit  as  though  it  was  water.  Wine 
they  do  not  touch,  as  it  is  forbidden  in  the  Koran,  but 
when  that  sacred  book  was  written  the  art  of  distillation 
was  happily  unknown,  and  consequently  spmt  was  not 
forbidden,  therefore  Mohammedans  sometimes  observe  the 
letter  but  not  the  "spmt"  of  the  law.     The  lower  classes 


204  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

of  Turks  are  as  a  rule  very  sober,  far  more  so  tlian  any 
nation  it  has  ever  been  my  fortune  to  meet. 

There  are  most  extensive  vineyards  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Slivmia,  and  the  wdne,  which  is  of  a  Burgundy  char- 
acter, is  excellent ;  but  the  vine-growers  were  in  great 
distress  this  year  in  consequence  of  the  destruction  of 
the  greater  part  of  their  vintage  from  a  severe  hail- 
storm. 

From  Slivmia  there  are  two  routes  to  Kezanlik,  one  by 
the  valley  of  the  Tundja,  and  the  other  by  Yeni  Zaghra 
and  Eski  Zaghra.  These  two  routes  are  divided  by  an 
important  range  of  mountains,  which  are  but  imperfectly 
marked  in  maps  of  the  country.  They  commence  from 
the  S.W.  of  Slivmia  and  run  parallel  to  the  Balkan,  in- 
creasing in  height  until  they  reach  the  Karadja  Dagh  on 
the  west,  just  south  of  Kalofer. 

The  geological  formation  of  these  hills  is  exactly  the 
reverse  of  that  of  the  great  Balkan,  where  the  north  side 
of  the  range  is  composed  of  cretaceous,  and  the  southern 
of  crystalline  rocks.  As  the  Karadja  Dagh  is  approached, 
the  cretaceous  rocks  break  away  to  the  south,  leaving  that 
mountain  with  a  dolomite  northern,  and  red  sandstone 
southern,  front.  As  might  be  expected,  the  appearance 
of  the  hills  varies  with  the  geological  formation.  Between 
Yeni  Zaghra  and  Eski  Zaghra  they  are  rounded  and  tol- 
erably steep,  while  as  the  Karadja  Dagh  is  approached 
they  become  very  steep  and  more  rugged. 

As  Brophy  wished  to  visit  Yeni  Zaghi'a,  we  chose  that 
route,  and  after  crossing  the  Tundja,  soon  after  leaving 
Slivmia,  we  dipped  over  the  low  hills  into  the  great  fluvia- 
tile  plain  of  the  upper  Maritza  and  its  affluents.  This 
plain  reminded  me  of  the  Banat  in  Hungary,  excepting 
that  it  is  more  thickly  populated,  and  that  it  contains  a 
few  more  trees  than  the  latter  country. 

We  are  now  approaching  the  district  which  was  the 
scene  of  the  Bulgarian  atrocities ;  but  I  write  from  my 
notes  taken  in  1874,  and  I  shall  leave  it  to  the  reader  to 
judge  whether  we  found  a  country  brought  to  such  a  pitch 


A  SAD  SIGHT.  205 

of  poverty  and  miseiy  as  to  be  forced  into  rebellion  against 
their  oppressors. 

It  must  be  remembered,  that  although  I  was  a  compara- 
tive stranger  to  the  country,  and  therefore  liable  to  be 
deceived  by  first  and  favorable  imiDressions,  I  was  ac- 
comiDanied  by  a  gentleman  who  was  not  only  intimately 
acquainted  mth  the  country,  but  was  also,  from  his  official 
position,  enabled  to  obtain  interviews  with  many  of  the 
better  class  of  natives,  Bulgarian  as  well  as  Turkish, 
many  of  whom  were  his  personal  friends.  We,  were,  there- 
fore, not  likely  to  be  deceived,  and  if  the  Bulgarians  had 
any  grievances  they  would  have  been  only  too  glad  of  the 
opportunity  of  pouring  them  out  to  the  "Consulus  Bey," 
or  English  Consul. 

It  was  now  the  2oth  of  August ;  harvest  was  over,  and 
threshing  was  going  on  in  many  of  the  Bulgarian  villages 
we  passed,  while  others  were  encu'cled  with  numerous 
stacks  of  grain  still  in  the  straw.  Plo^ving  was  active, 
and  farmers  were  busy  ;  and  well  they  might  be  with  such 
a  generous  soil  as  the  rich  alluvial  land  they  were  culti- 
vating. As  soon  as  we  came  upon  the  flat  plain,  which 
extends  to  the  west  and  south  as  far  as  the  eye  can  reach, 
we  met  the  new  highway  road  from  Philippopolis  to 
Yanboli  by  way  of  Eski  Zaghra  and  Yeni  Zaghra,  with 
the  telegraph  wires  running  on  poles  beside  it.  This  road 
was  new,  and  it  would  then  compare  favorably  with  our 
largest  and  best  roads  in  England ;  but,  unfortunately,  in 
Turkey,  although  large  sums  are  often  laid  out  in  making 
a  highway,  nothing  is  ever  expended  in  keeping  it  in 
order.  The  consequence  is,  that  a  very  few  years  after- 
ward the  original  expenditure  is  but  a  useless  waste  of 
money,  for  the  road  becomes  impassable  for  wheeled 
carriages. 

At  one  spot  we  came  upon  a  sad  sight — a  Turkish 
farmer  sitting  by  the  side  of  his  numerous  stacks  of  grain, 
the  product  of  his  year's  industry  ;  but  they  were  no 
longer  golden  from  the  yellow  straw,  but  red  from  the 
glowing  fire  which  had  consumed  them.     It  was  supposed 


206  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

that  some  one  liaci  carelessly  thrown  the  end  of  a  cigarette 
into  the  straw  in  passing,  and  the  thoughtless  act  had 
destroyed  more  than  eight  hundred  pounds  worth  of 
grain.  The  man  was  a  Turk,  and,  as  a  consequence,  he 
was  calm,  dignified,  and  patient  in  adversity.  He  said 
that  it  was  "  written  on  his  forehead" — the  usual  phrase 
to  signify  that  it  was  the  will  of  the  Almighty  that 
he  should  be  punished.  The  neighboring  Turks  and 
Christians  who  were  around  showed  much  symjpathy  for 
him,  and  it  was  proposed  to  start  a  subscription  to  helj) 
in  making  good  his  loss. 

The  sun  was  very  hot,  the  heat  extremely  oppressive  ; 
the  haze  on  the  horizon  in  our  front  gradually  thickened 
until  it  assumed  that  leaden  hue  which  betokens  a  thunder- 
cloud, and  I  soon  witnessed  one  of  the  heaviest  storms  of 
my  experience.  The  air  was  perfectly  calm,  but  far  away 
on  the  plain  in  our  front  there  was  a  black  approaching 
wall,  and  we  could  see  sticks  and  leaves  and  dust  whirl- 
ing about  in  the  air  with  gTeat  velocity.  There  was  a 
khan  about  a  quarter  of  a  mile  ahead,  so,  setting  spurs  to 
our  horses,  we  pushed  for  it  as  hard  as  we  could  gallop. 
A  low  moaning  noise  could  be  heard,  which  gradually 
grew  into  a  roar  as  the  clearly-defined  bank  of  dust  rushed 
upon  us  ;  and  then,  as  though  to  be  in  keeping  with  the 
tragic  effect,  there  came  a  vivid  flash  of  lightning  and  a 
loud  and  simultaneous  clajD  of  thunder,  just  as  the  storm 
struck  us.  So  thick  was  the  black  dust  that  I  could  not 
see  Brophy,  who  was  not  five  yards  from  me ;  and 
although  we  were  then  not  a  hundred  yards  from  the 
khan,  by  the  time  we  arrived  there  we  were  covered  with 
it  from  head  to  foot,  and  looked  like  negroes. 

The  storm  was  not  very  grand,  and  great  whirlwinds  of 
dust  and  rubbish  rose  in  spiral  clouds  high  into  the  air, 
while  the  thunder  and  lightning  were  almost  continuous. 
One  vivid  flash  struck  the  earth,  about  a  hundred  yards 
from  the  khan,  w^itli  a  loud  smack,  like  the  sharp  crack 
of  a  whip,  and  the  rain  came  down  in  such  torrents  that 
we  were  not  sorry  to  have  found  shelter.     After  waiting 


TENI ZAGEBA.  207 

an  liour  the  rain  still  continued,  but  the  wind  had  died 
away,  so  we  pushed  on.  Signs  of  the  storm  were  every- 
where visible,  in  fallen  telegraph  posts,  and  parts  of  the 
road  washed  away ;  the  flat  plain  was  nearly  turned  into 
a  lake,  and  toward  evening  we  arrived  at  the  town  of 
Yeni  Zaghra,  which  was  almost  under  water.  I  hate  a 
plain — nature  and  my  legs  intended  me  for  the  mountains, 
— and  I  consequently  thought  Yeni  Zaghra  a  most  miser- 
able place ;  but  it  was  evident  that  a  vast  number  of 
peoi)le  thought  otherwise,  for  I  never  saw  a  more  busy 
town.  Building  was  going  on  in  every  direction,  and  the 
clack,  clack  of  the  hammers  sounded  like  a  builder's 
yard.  The  houses  were  good,  and  built  of  small  bricks 
between  beams  of  wood,  like  some  of  the  old  houses  of 
Cheshii'e  and  Worcestershire.  One  part  of  the  town  is 
Turkish  and  the  other  Bulgarian ;  or  rather,  I  should  say, 
one  part  is  Mohammedan  and  the  other  Christian,  for  they 
are  nearly  all  Bulgarians.  We  were  fortunate  in  getting 
into  a  perfectly  new  khan,  so  that  there  were  none  of  my 
old  enemies,  the  bugs  ;  but  the  rain  had  come  through  the 
roof,  and  the  wooden  floors  upon  which  we  had  to  sleep 
were  sodden  with  wet.  The  Caimacam,  or  Turkish  gover- 
nor, came  to  visit  us  ;  and  while  he  and  Brophy  were  dis- 
cussing the  affairs  of  state  with  the  usual  accompaniments 
of  cigarettes  and  raki,  I  stirred  up  the  khanjee,  or  inn- 
keeper, to  provide  some  food  ;  but  it  was  past  ten  o'clock 
before  we  could  get  anything  to  eat.  This  is  the  weak 
point  in  traveling  in  Turkey  :  the  fact  is  that  the  well-to- 
do  natives,  when  traveling,  have  always  the  house  of  some 
friend  to  go  to,  and  he  passes  them  on  to  some  other 
friend  at  the  next  station,  and  so  on.  The  wants  of  the 
poorer  classes  are  so  moderate  that  a  piece  of  bread  and 
a  bit  of  cheese  is  all  that  they  require ;  they  are  imper- 
vious to  bugs,  and  would  feel  quite  lonely  and  ennuye 
without  the  titiUatrng  company  of  fleas.  The  consequence 
is  that  the  khans  are  provided  only  for  these  poorer 
classes ;  and  the  hungry  well-to-do  traveler  must  be 
content  with  a  bit  of  bread  and  cheese,  and  must  then 


208  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

offer  himself  up  as  a  delicate  and  tender  morsel  for  the 
feast  and  revels  of  the  various  insectivorse,  vt^hich  crawling, 
hopping,  and  flying,  infest  the  place. 

The  Caimacam  of  Yeni  Zaghra  was  very  civil  and 
obliging,  and  begged  me  to  Join  in  the  "circling  glass"  of 
raid,  instead  of  busying  myself  with  seeing  after  dinner 
and  arranging  beds,  etc.,  for  the  night ;  but  I  refused  to 
be  a  "spmt  medium,"  much  to  the  astonishment  of  the 
fat  Turk. 

I  have  noticed  two  distinct  types  of  Turkish  officials, 
namely,  the  fat  and  the  lean  kine. 

The  fat  variety  is  generally  coarse,  vulgar,  and  bump- 
tious ;  while  the  lean  officer  is  refined,  courteous,  and  a 
perfect  gentleman. 

I  imagine  that  the  latter  type  more  nearly  represents 
the  true  Turk  stock,  as  I  was  able  to  detect  a  Tartar-look 
in  their  physiognomy.  It  was  as  though  a  skillful  sculp- 
tor had  taken  a  Tartar  face  and  chiseled  refinement  and 
beauty  u^Don  it.  The  Caimacam  whom  I  met  at  Burgas 
before  I  left  that  town  was  of  the  latter  type,  and  would 
have  done  credit  to  any  society  in  any  part  of  the  world. 

I  found  that  the  value  of  land  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Yeni  Zaghra  was  as  much  as  £50  an  acre ;  and  that  be- 
tween that  town  and  Eski  Zaghra  land  could  not  be  bought 
under  £10  per  acre,  and  it  was  very  scarce  at  that  price. 
The  town  now  boasts  of  a  railway  station  on  the  line 
leading  from  Adrianople  to  Yanboli. 

Our  ride  from  Yeni  Zaghra  to  Eski  Zaghra  lay  along  the 
new  carriage  road  which  runs  at  the  foot  of  the  range  of 
hills  on  the  right.  This  country  was  then  thickly  popu- 
lated, and  for  twenty  miles  I  passed  village  after  village, 
prettily  ensconced  at  the  foot  of  the  hills,  and  separated 
by  an  average  distance  of  about  a  mile.  They  were  all 
Bulgarian,  but  many  were  Mohammedan,  and  they  were 
all  most  prosperous  and  thriving.  Every  inch  of  land  was 
cultivated,  and  I  heard  that  the  male  population  had  be- 
come so  excessive  that  many  young  men  had  to  leave  their 
homes  and  seek  occupation  in  other  parts  of  Turkey. 


WAR  TAXES.  209 

There  were  complaints  of  brigands  who  infested  the  neigh- 
boring mountains ;  and  I  was  shown  a  house  in  one  viUage 
which  had  been  attacked  a  few  months  before,  and  where 
the  owner  had  been  shot  by  these  lawless  scoundrels.  This 
sounds  alarming,  and  as  though  life  and  property  were 
not  safe  ;  but  we  may  parallel  it  in  England  if  we  desig- 
nate our  burglars  by  the  more  alarming  title  of  brigands, 
and  look  over  our  police  reports  for  a  few  years  past.  A 
few  accounts  of  our  Fenian  riots,  well  colored  and  related 
as  occurring  in  Turkey,  would  make  the  country  sound 
very  unsafe.  Fancy,  if  it  was  now  related  that  a  Bulga- 
rian landed  proprietor  could  only  walk  about  his  own 
estate  in  safety,  accompanied  by  half  a  dozen  policemen 
with  loaded  rifles  to  protect  him  from  ambuscades  laid  for 
him  by  the  fanatical  Turks.  How  many  hundreds  of  years 
would  these  anti-human  specimens  of  humanity  be  thrust 
back  in  civilization  !  Yet  this  was  what  occurred  in  Ire- 
land but  a  few  years  ago.  If  I  was  to  relate  a  case  of  a 
Turk,  who  first  seduced  and  then  murdered  a  Bulgarian 
woman,  cut  her  up  in  small  pieces,  and  burned  her  flesh  in 
the  fireplace  of  the  very  room  he  was  inhabiting,  it  would 
make  a  very  terrible  story  ;  yet  a  similar  case  occurred  in 
England  only  the  year  before  last. 

I  mention  these  cases  only  to  show  how  careful  we  ought 
to  be  not  to  accept  highly-colored  accounts  of  murder, 
arson,  etc.,  which  are  collected  from  all  quarters,  and  pub- 
lished in  some  newspapers  as  though  they  formed  the 
occurrences  of  every-day  life  in  the  country  it  is  intended 
to  malign. 

Even  while  I  write  this  I  see  accounts  of  horrible  occur- 
rences in  the  district  of  Salonica,  to  the  effect  that  life  and 
property  are  not  safe,  that  anarchy  prevails,  and  that  the 
unfortunate  Christians  are  taxed  to  the  utmost  farthing 
to  provide  for  the  war,  while  the  Turkish  population  is 
drained  to  the  last  man  for  the  same  purpose.  Now  I 
happen  to  have  an  estate  in  that  very  district  which  I  have 
but  Just  left.  My  agent,  a  Scotchman,  is  living  there  with 
his  wife  and  young  family.  I  am  suiTOunded  by  villages 
14 


210  TURRET  IX  EUROPE. 

both  Turk  and  Cliristian ;  I  know  many  of  the  inhabitants 
of  both  creeds,  and  they  are  living  peaceably  together. 
Life  and  property  are  so  safe  that  my  agent  does  not  even 
take  the  trouble  to  lock  the  doors  of  his  house  at  night, 
and  any  one  might  walk  in  who  might  be  so  disposed.  I 
think  this  is  imprudent,  but  still  the  fact  remains. 

I  have  upwards  of  a  hundred  people  on  the  estate, 
nearly  all  of  whom  are  Christians,  but  there  are  some 
Turks.  The  only  war-tax  my  tenants  and  the  neighbor- 
ing villages  have  had  to  pay,  was  a  demand  in  the  autumn 
for  each  man  to  furnish  some  warm  socks  and  a  woolen 
rug  for  the  use  of  the  Turkish  troops,  who  were  suffering 
from  the  cold  in  Servia.  The  total  value  of  each  contri- 
bution would  certainly  not  be  more  than  six  shillings. 
This  has  been  collected  in  the  usual  manner.  The  Mudir, 
or  Turkish  magistrate  of  the  district,  sent  for  the  Codja 
Bashis,  "headmen"  of  each  village,  and  informed  them 
of  the  amount  of  clothing  the  village  was  to  supply,  and 
ample  time  was  given  to  provide  it.  I  have  since  heard 
that  a  further  tax,  amounting  to  about  eighteen  pence  per 
head,  is  to  be  levied.  My  TurMsh  neighbors  have  certainly 
had  some  fine  young  men  drawn  for  soldiers,  but  they  are 
cultivating  as  much  land  as  usual,  and  are  even  clamor- 
ing, good  naturedly  and  civilly,  for  me  to  let  them  culti- 
vate a  pet  piece  of  my  own  land. 

This  does  not  look  like  anarchy,  oppression,  and  dan- 
ger !  But  the  accounts  I  read  in  some  papers  and  hear  in 
some  speeches  almost  make  my  hair  stand  on  end  with 
horror. 

Am  I  dreaming  ?  Why,  just  before  I  left  Salonica  the 
Christians  of  that  town  gave  an  amateur  concert /br  tJie 
henefit  of  the  TurMsli  wounded.  It  was  attended  by  the 
Turldsh  Governor-General  and  all  his  staff,  beside  numer- 
ous other  Turks,  and  a  sum  of  nearly  three  hundred 
pounds  was  handed  over  by  the  Christians  to  the  Turkish 
authorities  as  the  result  of  the  social  gathering  of  the  two 
creeds  in  the  most  holy — but  too  often  one-sided — work  of 
pure  charity. 


ESKI ZAOHRA.  211 

Tliere  was  a  dance  after  the  concert,  and  tlie  Turks 
asked  permission  to  be  allowed  to  remain  to  see  it ;  and 
the  quizzical  expression  of  astonishment  depicted  upon 
their  faces  as  they  saw  Christian  men  place  their  arms 
round  the  waists  of  Christian  ladies  and  whiii  them  round 
in  a  galop  was  most  amusing. 

There  are  a  few  brigands  about  in  the  neighboring 
mountain  districts,  it  is  true,  but  so  there  were  "francs- 
tireurs  "  in  France  during  the  late  war.  When  I  read  and 
hear  all  these  sensational  accounts,  which  are  gathered 
and  colored  for  a  purpose,  I  feel  inclined  to  shout  out  that 
expressive  English  word,  '■'■Jiunibng  !  " 

But  to  return  to  Eski  Zaghra,  a  large  Bulgarian  town, 
prettily  situated  at  the  eastern  foot  of  the  Karadja  Dagh. 

Has  there  been  any  progress  here,  I  wonder?  Let  us 
see.  In  the  year  1850  the  population  of  the  to-^Ti  and  127 
villages  which  surround  it  was  21,947.  In  the  year  1870 
the  population  was  32,236,  of  which  8,674  were  Moham- 
medans, 1,177  gipsies,  and  the  remainder  Christians.  In 
1840  there  was  but  one  small  Christian  school  in  Eski 
Zaghra ;  in  1870  there  were  fifty  schools,  with  2,280 
pui)ils !  In  the  city  there  are  four,  and  in  the  villages 
sixteen  Christian  churches,  with  thirty-eight  priests  of  the 
Bulgarian  Church. 

I  went  over  a  large  silk  manufactory  in  the  center  of 
the  town,  and  which  appeared  to  be  admirably  managed. 
About  fifty  Bulgarian  guis  were  employed  at  tables  con- 
taining an  open  trough  of  cold,  and  another  of  very  hot 
water,  and  beliind  each  girl  was  a  large  di'um  wheel, 
about  three  feet  in  diameter,  worked  by  steam  power. 
The  cocoons  are  put  by  dozens  at  a  time  into  the  hot 
water.  A  gui  dips  her  hand  first  into  the  cold  water,  and 
then  seizes  a  hot  cocoon,  and  detaches  the  thread  of  silk 
so  quickly  and  dexterously  that  you  cannot  detect  the  ac- 
tion. She  then  leads  the  fine  thread  to  a  pipe  connected 
with  the  circumference  of  the  wheel,  which  winds  off  the 
sHk. 

The  outer  thread  is  fine,  and  is  broken  off  at  a  certain 


312  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

distance,  but  the  inner  thread,  althougli  of  a  golden  color, 
is  more  like  coarse  cotton  than  silk.  The  girls  keep  up  a 
sort  of  chant  during  the  process,  and  the  general  effect  of 
the  numerous  drum-wheels  with  their  golden  coverings  is 
very  pleasing.  I  also  saw  a  large  soap  factory,  which  I 
was  told  was  paying  well,  and  an  enterprizing  Bulgarian 
proposed  starting  a  glass  factory.  One  part  of  the  to\^Ti 
was  reserved  exclusively  for  copper  works  for  the  con- 
struction of  hammered  cooking  vessels,  etc. 

As  I  should  soon  be  obliged  to  part  with  my  companion, 
Mr.  Brophy,  it  was  necessary  to  look  out  for  an  inter- 
preter, and  he  told  me  he  knew  of  a  Bulgarian  lad  who 
was  a  resident  in  the  town,  and  who  had  been  educated 
at  Robert  College  at  Constantinople. 

We  had  been  fortunate  in  finding  a  tolerably  comfort- 
able khan  where  we  could  get  good  food,  and  the  khangee 
had  sent  far  and  wide  in  search  of  the  interpreter  "lad," 
who  rejoiced  in  the  name  of  Pano-Gospodinoff. 

After  a  time  I  was  informed  that  some  one  "wished  to 
speak  to  me,  and  a  tall  man  about  thirty  years  of  age, 
with  a  black  beard  and  moustache,  and  rather  a  Yankee 
air  and  dress,  entered,  and  in  good  English,  but  vdXh  a 
decided  American  accent,  he  introduced  himself  as  Pano 
Gospodinoff.  It  struck  me  that  the  "lad"  must  have 
groT\Ti  with  amazing  rapidity,  or  there  must  be  some 
mistake. 

It  turned  out  that  he  had  not  been  educated  at  Robert 
College,  but  by  the  American  Protestant  Mission  at  Eski 
Zaghra,  and  that  he  had  since  been. lecturing  in  America 
on  Turkey  and  the  Bulgarians.  He  was  willing  to  follow 
me  anywhere,  and  engaged  to  act  as  interpreter  for  £3  per 
month  and  his  keep.  He  was  a  smart,  active,  honest,  and 
agreeable  man,  so  I  installed  him  at  once,  and  never  re- 
gretted it.  He  informed  me  that  he  was  in  possession  of 
an  excellent  camp-bed,  purchased  in  America,  and  hoped 
that  I  would  make  use  of  it.  The  bed  was  produced,  and 
after  more  than  a  quarter  of  an  hour  spent  in  the  most 
careful  adjustment  of  complicated  parts,  it  presented  the 


KEZANLIK.  213 

appearance  of  a  long  piece  of  canvas  supported  by  a 
number  of  fragile  sticks. 

"Now,  sir,"  said  Pano,  "pray  lie  down  and  see  how 
comfortable  a  bed  is  tliis." 

"Thank  you,"  I  replied,  "but  let  me  see  you  try  it." 
He  was  nearly  twice  my  weight. 

"Oh,  sir,^  it  is  very  strong  beds — oh,  yes,  I  ■will  lie 
on  it." 

And  so  he  did — with  a  care  which  showed  an  intimate 
acquaintance  ^\'ith  this  rickety  invention.  He  poised  him- 
self in  its  center,  and  gradually  lengthened  himself  out 
gently  until  he  reclined  at  full  length. 

"  There,  sir,  this  is  very  strong " 

"Crash!"  The  sentence  was  cut  short,  as  the  whole 
thing  suddenly  collapsed,  and  left  him  buried  in  a  wreck 
of  sharp  sticks  poking  him  in  many  tender  parts.  But  he 
was  evidently  used  to  it,  and  the  bed  was  his  hobby,  and 
nothing  could  break  his  faith  in  his  pet  couch.  He  rose 
and  perseveringly  put  it  all  together  again,  and  offered  a 
trial  to  me,  but  I  declined  with  thanks.  The  bed  accom- 
panied him  for  the  rest  of  my  travels,  and  much  of  his  time 
was  passed  in  putting  it  together. 

Our  next  day's  Journey  was  to  Kezanlik,  and  to  reach  it 
we  had  to  cross  the  Karadja  Dagh  range  by  a  long  pass, 
winding  through  very  steep  hills  composed  of  granite  and 
gneiss  rocks,  covered  in  most  places  with  oak  scrub. 
There  is  a  good  carriage-road  the  whole  way.  Tliis  pass 
would  be  a  very  easy  one  to  defend,  and  might  be  made 
impregnable.  It  is  about  fourteen  mUes  in  length.  About 
half-way  up  the  pass,  and  at  an  altitude  of  nearly  one 
thousand  feet  above  Eski  Zaghra,  there  is  a  hot  spring, 
strongly  impregnated  with  iron.  It  is  frequented  by  nu- 
merous invalids  who  come  to  take  the  waters,  and  there 
is  a  large,  rambling  building  for  their  accommodation.  The 
temperature  of  this  spring  is  as  much  as  140^  Fahrenheit. 

The  view  from  the  top  of  the  pass,  as  you  descend  to 
the  plain  of  the  Upper  Tundja,  is  very  beautiful. 

Kezanlik,   surrounded  by  groves  of  trees,  lies  in  the 


214  TURKEY  IN  EJJROTE. 

center  of  the  plain,  and  nnmerous  villages,  scattered  in 
every  direction,  peep  out  through  the  foliage  of  beautiful 
walnut  and  other  trees. 

This  plain  is  about  1,300  feet  above  the  sea.  Opposite, 
and  to  the  north,  lies  the  great  Balkan  range,  which  at 
this  point  attains  its  highest  altitude  of  4,400  feet.  The 
mountains  end  abruptly  in  the  plain  below,  which  gives 
them  much  grandeur,  and  the  combination  of  mountain, 
plain,  forest,  and  river  is  all  that  can  be  desired  by  the 
lover  of  scenery.  We  arrived  at  Kezanlik  after  a  delight- 
ful ride  of  nine  hours  from  Eski  Zaghra,  and  were  hos- 
pitably housed  by  a  German,  who  is  a  member  of  the  firm 
of  Messrs.  D.  Pappozogiou  Brothers,  of  Constantinople, 
and  resides  at  Kezanlik  for  the  purpose  of  collecting  the 
attar  of  rose,  for  which  the  district  is  so  celebrated. 

I  was  always  under  the  impression  that  the  attar  of  rose 
was  made  in  large  quantities  in  Persia,  as  well  as  in  Tur- 
key, for  I  remember  purchasing  it  in  Bushire,  many  years 
ago,  ^^nder  the  idea  that  it  was  a  product  of  that  country ; 
but  my  host  informed  me  that  I  VN^as  mistaken,  and  that 
the  district  south  of  the  Balkan  was  the  only  part  of  the 
world  where  it  has  as  yet  been  produced. 

The  whole  house  was  redolent  with  the  scent  of  rose ; 
but  although  the  aroma  is  very  penetrative,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  subtle  character  of  the  essential  oil,  it  is  not 
at  all  overpowering,  even  when  the  nose  is  applied  to  an 
unstoppered  bottle  of  the  fluid.  My  host  opened  a  cup- 
board which  contained  thirty  large  glass  bottles  of  the 
attar,  and  told  me  that  I  was  looldng  at  twelve  thousand 
pounds  worth  of  oil !  The  flowers  which  produce  it  have 
the  appearance  of  our  common  dog-rose,  and  are  of  the 
varieties  known  as  Rosa  Damascena,  R.  Sempervirens, 
and  R.  Moschata.  The  last-named  affords  the  chief  in- 
gredient of  the  attar. 

The  natives  themselves  know  very  little  about  the  va- 
rieties, and  are  only  concerned  with  the  profits  they  can 
make  out  of  the  oil.  The  plant  is  cultivated  by  the  farm- 
ers in  every  village  of  the  district,  and  requires  a  sandy 


ROSE   CULTIVATION.  215 

soil  on  sloping  ground,  exposed  to  the  rays  of  the  sun. 
The  greatest  care  is  bestowed  upon  its  cultivation  and  the 
harvesting  of  the  crop.  Laying  down  a  rose-garden  may 
be  done  in  either  spring  or  autumn,  upon  ground  which 
has  been  w^ell  cleaned  and  plowed. 

Young  rose-shoots  are  torn  off  the  larger  plants,  so  as  to 
carry  with  them  a  portion  of  the  roots,  and  these  are  laid 
almost  horizontally  in  trenches  about  a  foot  deep  and  five 
feet  ajDart,  so  as  to  form  a  future  hedge ;  they  are  then 
covered  with  earth  and  manure,  and  trodden  carefully 
down.  Under  favorable  circumstances  the  shoots  will 
appear  at  the  end  of  six  months,  when  they  should  be 
earthed  up,  and  the  plants  will  be  more  than  a  foot  high 
at  the  end  of  the  year. 

At  the  end  of  the  second  year  they  yield  a  few  flowers, 
but  it  is  not  until  the  third  year  that  any  profit  can  be 
made  out  of  them.  They  are  in  full  bearing  in  five  years, 
at  a  height  of  about  six  feet,  and  last  for  fifteen  years, 
when  the  plants  cease  to  flower. 

They  require  earthing  up  four  times  a  year,  and  should 
be  manured  every  second  year  ;  but  although  the  manure 
increases  the  quantity  of  the  oil,  it  interferes  with  the 
quality. 

No  pruning  is  requii'ed,  except  to  cut  off  all  dead 
branches. 

Very  severe  cold  will  kill  the  plants,  and  those  of  the 
whole  district  were  destroyed  in  this  way  in  the  year  1870. 

Hoar-frost,  foggy  and  misty  weather  are  also  injurious 
to  the  crops,  and  a  hot  temperature  during  the  process  of 
distillation  interferes  with  the  yield  of  oil ;  harvest  com- 
mences in  May,  and  lasts  for  about  twenty  days.  The 
farmer  counts  the  buds  on  his  plants,  and  calculates  the 
number  which  w^ill  probably  blossom  daily,  which  he 
makes  a  divisor  for  the  whole,  and  thus  gets  at  the 
number  of  days  his  harvest  will  last. 

The  flowers  should  be  gathered  before  the  morning  dew 
is  off  them,  and  then  immediately  be  distilled.  Herein 
lies  the  difficulty,  because  it  is  impossible  to  judge,  even 


216  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

approximately,  of  the  rapidity  witli  whicli  all  the  buds 
will  blossom  ;  consequently,  unless  a  very  large  staff  is 
kept,  so  as  to  pick  all  the  blossoms  of  a  heavy  crop  in  the 
short  space  of  time  that  is  available,  and  unless  a  large 
number  of  alembics  are  ready  to  distil  them,  a  great  por- 
tion of  the  crop,  if  there  is  a  rapid  blossoming,  may  be 
wasted.  When  the  temperature  during  harvest  is  cold 
and  damp,  the  blossoming  is  gradual,  but  when  it  is  hot 
and  sunny,  it  is  rapid.  The  alembic  consists  of  a  convex 
copper  boiler,  narrowed  at  the  top  to  a  neck,  which  carries 
the  headpiece,  or  condensing-tube  (which  is  straight,  and 
slopes  downward),  through  a  vessel  containing  cold  water, 
until  it  meets  the  receiver.  The  boilers  are  made  to  con- 
tain, when  full,  about  240  lbs.  of  water,  but  only  three- 
fourths  of  that  amount  is  poured  in,  and  25  lbs.  of  blos- 
soms are  added.  Distillation  goes  on  until  the  turbid- 
looking  rosewater  which  is  produced  equals  in  weight  the 
amount  of  blossoms  in  the  boiler,  namely,  25  lbs.  The 
boiler  is  then  removed  and  cleansed,  and  the  i)rocess  is 
repeated  with  fresh  blossoms. 

The  turbid  fluid  is  again  distilled,  and  this  time  there 
appears  upon  the  double-distilled  rosewater  an  oleaginous 
and  yello\vish  liquid  floating  upon  the  surface,  and  this  is 
the  celebrated  attar  of  rose.  It  is  sldmmed  by  means  of 
a  funnel-shaped  spoon  with  a  small  aperture  at  the  bot- 
tom, so  as  to  allow  of  the  escape  of  the  water,  but  not 
of  the  oil.  It  appeared  to  me  that  some  of  the  precious 
fluid  must  be  wasted  by  this  clumsy  sldmming-process. 
I  therefore  suggested  to  my  host  that  as  the  attar  was 
extremely  volatile,  it  might  easily  be  distilled  off  the  sur- 
face of  the  water,  and  thus  a  purer  fluid  would  be  obtained 
without  waste.  He  said  he  should  certainly  give  the  idea 
a  trial. 

The  yield  of  attar  varies  greatly,  but  on  an  average  it 
takes  4,000  lbs.  of  rose-blossoms  to  make  1  lb.  of  oil. 

The  best  quality  of  attar  varies  in  price  from  17  to  18 
piastres  the  miscal,  or  from  15s.  4d.  to  16s.  lOd.  per  ounce  : 
while  inferior  qualities  realize  fi"om  14  to  15  piastres  the 


ATTAR  OF  BOSK  217 

miscal.  Tlie  mode  adopted  for  testing  tlie  purity  of  tlie 
different  qualities  of  these  oils  is  to  put  tlie  essence  into 
flasks,  which  are  afterwards  immersed  in  water  at  a  tem- 
perature of  63^  or  68°  Fahrenheit,  when,  if  the  quality  be 
good,  it  wiU  freeze.  This  is  considered  the  purest  oil.  A 
stony,  sandy  ground,  impregnated  with  oxide  of  ii'on, 
produces  the  best  oil,  while  a  hard  and  badly  cultivated 
land  will  only  yield  oil  of  an  inferior  quality,  which  will 
not  freeze  at  a  temperature  over  52°  Fahrenheit. 

Manufacturers  frequently  adulterate  the  attar  with  a 
fluid  which  they  produce  fi'om  certain  Idnds  of  grasses. 

An  English  acre  produces  from  4,000  lbs,  to  6,000  lbs.  of 
blossoms,  in  fair  years,  and  34^  lbs.  of  blossoms  produce 
about  1^  drachms  of  oH,  which,  on  an  average,  may  be  said 
to  be  worth  in  the  wholesale  market  about  four  shillings. 

Kezanlik  is  surrounded  by  irrigated  gardens  and  large 
groves  of  magnificent  walnut-trees. 

I  find  that  it  is  customary  to  crush  the  walnuts,  shells 
and  all,  for  the  sake  of  the  oil  which  is  thus  produced, 
and  which  is  much  esteemed  for  cooking-purposes  and  for 
flavoring  sweets. 

The  whole  district  is  also  celebrated  for  its  plums, 
which  are  delicious,  and  are  gi'own  in  sufficient  abundance 
to  create  a  large  trade  in  prunes.  We  were  passing  by  an 
orchard  of  these  fi'uit-trees,  when  a  Turk,  who  was  gather- 
ing the  large  black  oval  plums — seeing  us  cast  longing 
eyes  at  the  trees — came  forward  and  insisted  upon  our  fill- 
ing every  available  pocket  -with  the  fruit — indeed,  I  believe 
he  would  have  filled  a  basket,  if  we  had  possessed  one. 
The  district  of  Kezanlik  contained  in  1870,  forty-eight  vil- 
lages, with  a  population  of  25,602,  of  which  12,921  were 
Mohammedans,  11,907  Bulgarian  Christians,  646  Gipsies, 
and  128  Jews.  There  are  some  very  old  Christian  churches 
in  some  of  the  villages  of  this  district,  especially  at  Mou- 
blis  and  Terzidera,  one  of  which  dates  back  to  a.d.  1060, 
and  the  other  to  a.d.  1067.  At  the  small  town  of  Skipka, 
in  the  mountains  opposite,  there  is  another,  which  dates 
fi-om  A.D.  1367. 


218  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

We  paid  a  visit  to  tlie  Caimacam  of  Kezanlik,  wlio  was 
one  of  the  lean  kine  of  Turks,  and  a  tkorough  gentleman 
and  good  sportsman.  He  was  very  anxious  that  we  should 
stop  and  shoot  partridges  with  him,  but  I  was  pressed  for 
time,  and  had  to  push  on.  My  great  object  as  far  as  sport 
was  concerned  was  to  get  some  red  deer  stalking,  and  I  had 
determined  to  give  myself  a  fortnight  for  that  enjoyment, 
and  was  anxious  that  the  time  should  be  employed  on  the 
most  favorable  ground.  The  Caimacam  said  there  were 
red  deer  to  be  found  in  the  forests  on  the  neighboring 
mountains,  but  not  in  great  numbers,  and  I  learned  from  a 
Bulgarian  commercial  traveler  that  the  best  quarter  for 
that  sport  was  the  neighborhood  of  the  Rilo  Dagh,  near 
Samakov. 

While  staying  at  Kezanlik  I  was  called  upon  by  a  Bul- 
garian correspondent  of  the  Levant  Herald,  an  intelligent 
young  man,  very  much  "got  up"  with  black  kid  gloves, 
etc.  He  spoke  French  fluently,  and  was  most  anxious  to 
know  what  I  thought  of  the  country  and  the  Bulgarians, 
of  whom  he  seemed,  with  good  reason,  to  be  not  a  little 
proud. 

I  can  recommend  any  traveler  who  may  think  of  visit- 
ing Kezanlik  to  put  up  at  a  large  Bulgarian  convent, 
where  there  is  a  good  and  clean  house  for  the  reception  of 
visitors,  either  male  or  female.  I  went  over  the  whole  of 
this  establishment,  which  contains  about  fifty  nuns  ;  but 
they  did  not  appear  to  be  bound  by  very  strict  vows,  as  I 
was  told  that  they  can  leave  and  marry  whenever  they 
like ;  but  this  freedom  is  a  very  safe  concession,  as,  from 
the  personal  appearance  of  the  nuns,  I  should  say  that 
they  would  not  be  troubled  with  many  suitors. 

I  took  leave  of  my  hospitable  German  host  with  regret, 
for  although  Kezanlik  is  a  dirty  town,  the  suburbs  are 
very  pretty,  the  neighboring  scenery  beautiful,  the  air 
healthy  and  bracing,  and  my  host  was  agreeable  and 
clever.  Our  next  journey  was  to  Karlofer,  a  distance  of 
about  twenty-five  miles,  along  what  was  then  (1874)  an  ex- 
cellent carriage-road,  with  telegraph-posts  the  whole  way. 


KAELOFER.  '2l<d 

Tlie  Talley,  "vvliicli  at  Kezanlik  is  alooiit  seven  miles  broad, 
narrows  as  tlie  journey-  is  made  to  the  westward  tov»'ard 
Karlofer.  On  tlie  riglit  are  the  gi'and  Balkan  mountains, 
with  magnificent  forests,  interspersed  with  natural  jjasture 
uplands,  and  on  the  left  is  the  Karadja  Dagh,  with  its 
wooded  summits. 

The  richness  of  the  alluvial  s.oil  of  the  plain  fonned  by 
the  washings  of  the  mica  schist  from  the  neighboring 
mountains,  was  evidenced  in  the  numerous  stacks  of  grain 
which  was  being  threshed  out  in  all  directions,  and  all  the 
villages  and  villagers,  both  Christian  and  Mohammedan, 
had  a  well-to-do  and  prosperous  appearance. 

As  we  approached  Karlofer  the  road  wound  up  a  pass 
in  one  of  the  foot-hills,  and  along  a  tumbling  river,  which 
made  its  way  from  the  larger  mountain,  and  which  is  of  no 
small  service  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  town  which  is  built 
xq)OTi  it.  Here  was  a  busy  sight !  Manchester  itself  could 
not  appear  more  industrious.  Almost  every  house  had  a 
turbine  worked  by  the  water  from  the  river,  and  which 
turned  spindles  for  twisting  and  plaiting  woolen  braid, 
while  in  others  handsome  carpets  were  made.  The  buzz- 
ing of  the  turbines  and  clatter  of  the  spindles  gave  a  lively 
and  cheery  au"  of  worlc,  which,  with  the  fine  bracing  air, 
was  quite  exhilarating.  The  population  was  nearly  all 
Bulgarian,  and,  as  I  shall  have  to  pass  through  many  of 
these  Bulgarian  towns,  I  will  not  weary  the  reader  by  de- 
tails of  each,  because  the  general  character  and  customs 
of  the  people  may  be  derived  from  the  description  of  one 
or  two  places. 

As  soon  as  I  arrived,  some  of  the  leading  people  assem- 
bled near  the  khan  to  inspect  the  new  comer.  It  was  evi- 
dently an  "event,"  and  the  dawn  of  Cook's  devastating 
hordes  of  tourists  had  not  yet  broken  upon  that  portion  of 
Europe.  The  Bulgarian  notables  soon  get  into  conversa- 
tion, and  one  of  them  generally  proves  to  be  the  school- 
master. 

They  are  all  fine,  well-dressed,  and  respectable,  well-to- 
do  looking  men.   I  am  asked  to  visit  their  houses,  the  best 


220  TURRET  IN  EUROPE. 

of  wliicli  show  signs  of  the  contact  of  their  owners  with 
the  luxuries  of  more  civilized  Europe,  and  I  am  intro- 
duced with  much  form  to  the  old  people  of  the  family. 
I  am  struck  with  the  great  change  which  one  generation 
has  evidently  made  in  the  "  Europeanizing "  of  these 
people.  The  elders  of  the  family  were  apparently  not  ac- 
customed to  the  luxuries  now  enjoyed  by  their  children. 
I  am  soon  on  familiar  terms  with  several  notables,  who 
take  possession  of  me,  and  trot  me  about  the  town  as  a 
curiosity  to  be  exhibited  on  their  domestic  hearths. 

At  each  place  I  have  to  drink  coffee  and  eat  sweet- 
meats, until  at  last  I  feel  that  I  shall  have  a  bilious  at- 
tack if  I  submit  any  longer,  and  so  I  commence  to  beat  a 
retreat. 

But  the  moment  my  intention  is  discovered,  a  mysterious 
conversation  takes  place  in  whispers  among  the  notables, 
and  a  general  agreement  is  evidently  arrived  at.  The 
school-master — kind-hearted  soul ! — steps  forward ;  he  re- 
grets— they  all  regret — that  they  have  such  poor  accommo- 
dation to  offer  me.  I  must  not  go  to  that  ugly  khan — oh, 
no  !  I  should  be  devoured  during  the  night,  and  nothing 
would  be  left  but  my  beard  and  tough  parts  of  my  body 
by  the  morning.  "Will  I  accept  the  hospitality  of  the 
school-master' s  house,  poor  as  it  is  ?  Of  course  I  will.  And 
now  everything  is  bustle  to  get  my  things  moved,  and 
everybody  looks  pleased,  except  the  khanjee.  But  a  smile 
comes  into  his  face  as  the  thought  strikes  him  that  he  can 
charge  extra  for  my  horses,  which  must  be  left  there,  and 
so  he  makes  the  best  of  it. 

And  now,  with  many  apologies,  I  am  introduced  to  the 
school-house,  a  fine  large  building,  of  which  the  master  is 
justly  proud.  I  am  shown  into  a  large  room,  the  total 
furniture  of  which  consists  of  a  divan — namely,  a  cushioned 
seat  all  round  the  wall.  I  here  make  myseK  comfortable, 
and  in  due  course  of  time  am  asked  below  to  dinner,  am 
introduced  to  Mrs.  Martinehoff,  and  by  the  tennination 
"  off,"  I  know  that  she  is  the  wife  of  the  son  of  somebody. 
I  find  a  table  laid  European-fashion,  even  to  the  luxury  of 


EARLOFER.  221 

napkins,  and  I  sit  down  to  the  most  excellent  ditiner  of 
soup  and  several  made-dishes,  all  equally  good.  Madame, 
who  is  di-essed  in  a  semi-European  manner,  smiles  pleas- 
antly, beams  hospitably,  and  tries  to  make  me  eat  too 
much;  for,  although  the  amount  of  food  I  have  eaten 
would  keep  a  pauper  for  a  week,  she  assures  me  that  I 
have  eaten  nothing,  is  afraid  the  dishes  are  not  what  I  am 
accustomed  to,  etc.,  etc.  There  are  two  or  three  friends  of 
the  host  at  the  table,  and  the  conversation  runs  upon  the 
advancement  the  Bulgarian  nation  has  made,  and  its 
latent  capabilities  for  indefinite  development.  As  the 
native  wine  of  the  country — a  pleasant  beverage — flows 
round,  the  conversation  warms  on  the  same  national  sub- 
ject, and  in  vino  Veritas  much  information  flies  about. 

The  idea  of  Bulgarian  rebellion  seems  perfectly  under- 
stood, and  is  cast  aside  as  simply  ridiculous,  and  merely 
the  creation  of  intrigue  from  without,  which  feeds  upon 
the  follies  of  a  few  hot-headed  youths,  vauriens,  from 
within — but  "look  at  their  schools,"  "look  at  their 
houses,"  "look  at  their  general  progress,"  and  "do  I  not 
think  they  are  getting  on?"  They  can  assure  me  that 
"their  sons  are  now  educated  whilst  children,  in  the  toAvn, 
and  as  young  men,  abroad  and  at  Constantinople,  espe- 
cially at  Eobert  College,  and  can  talk  French  and  German 
—ah  !  and  some  of  them  English.  Even  in  this  very  toA\Ti, 
away  here  in  the  wild  Balkan  Mountains,  there  is  old  Mr. 
Somebodypoff's  son— w-ho,  bad  luck  to  him,  is  out  of  the 
way  just  now,  but  I  must  see  him — who  talks  English 
capitally.  Ah !  I  ought  to  have  seen  what  their  country 
was  twenty  years  ago  to  appreciate  what  it  is  now  ;  but  do 
I  not  think  that  they  really  are  a  nation  that  will  get  on  ? 
Yes,  I  do ;  and  I  retire  to  bed  convinced  that  they  will 
do  so. 

The  next  morning  I  am  introduced  to  old  Mr.  Somebody- 
poffs  son,  a  handsome  gentlemanly  young  fellow,  in 
European  dress^  who  talks  English  fluently,  and  with  a 
very  good  accent ;  and  the  fine  old  father  looks  smilingly 
on  with  a  pride  which  it  is  delightful  to  witness,  as  he 


222  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

listens  to  tlie  language  lie  cannot  understand,  but  wliicli 
sounds  sweetly  from  the  mouth  of  his  well-beloved  son. 
The  young  man  courteously  offers  to  act  as  my  cicerone 
over  the  small  town,  takes  me  to  the  convent  where  some 
good  old  Bulgarian  nuns  are  occupied  in  weaving  a  most 
excellent  cloth,  similar  to  our  highland  homespuns,  and 
some  of  which  I  buy  at  the  rate  of  about  two  shillings  the 
square  yard.  I  am  shown  over  the  convent,  a  large  ir- 
regular building,  well  kept,  and  with  gardens  round  it,  and 
which  seems  more  an  asylum  for  old  women  than  anything 
else.  They  have  some  quaint  and  ancient  pieces  of  silver 
in  the  form  of  small  flagons,  said  to  be  two  hundred  years 
old,  and  a  curiosity  in  the  shape  of  a  closet,  in  which, 
ranged  on  shelves,  are  the  skulls  of  all  the  old  nuns  who 
have  died  in  the  convent ;  and  the  old  lady  who  was  doing 
the  honors  of  the  institution,  showed  me,  in  a  simple  man- 
ner, the  place  which  her  respected  head  was  to  occupy. 

This  convent  for  old  ladies  bore  a  high  character  ;  but 
on  a  hill  on  the  other  side  of  the  town  there  was  another 
for  younger  nuns,  and  as  far  as  I  could  understand  it  did 
not  maintain  the  same  character  for  respectability  as  the 
one  I  was  visiting. 

At  last  the  time  came  when  I  must  continue  my  travels. 
I  made  a  present  to  the  hospitable  school-master  for  his 
school,  and  rode  off  amidst  the  good  wishes  of  his  wife 
and  friends.  Though  this  descri^Dtion  aj^plies  to  most,  it 
must  not  be  taken  as  a  sample  of  a  visit  to  all  Bulgarian 
towns ;  much  depends  upon  locality  and  the  prosperity 
of  the  trade  of  the  neighborhood.  Those  north  of  the 
Balkan  are  generally  more  advanced  than  the  towns  to 
the  south  of  that  range.  At  one  of  these  latter,  Klis- 
sura — which  has  suffered  so  severely  from  the  massacre — 
I  arrived  at  the  khan,  which  was  served  by  a  crabbed 
old  woman.  Had  she  coffee  ?  no  ;  fowls  ?  no  ;  eggs  ?  no  ; 
water  ?  yes ;  what  else  ?  bread.  So  I  sat  down  in  the 
veranda  of  the  court-yard  to  make  my  dinner  off  dry 
bread,  and  tried  to  imagine  it  luxury. 

I  was  hungry,  and  had  eaten  about  two  loaves,  and 


SOP  AT.  223 

was  beginning  to  feel  as  thongli  I  was  stuffed  with  cotton- 
wool, when  my  ever-truthfnl  nose  detected  a  sweet-smell- 
ing savor  as  of  stew,  and  looldng  np  I  saw  a  highly- 
respectable  Turk  advancing  with  a  steaming  dish  in  each 
hand. 

This  was  no  less  than  the  Mudir,  or  Turkish  magistrate 
of  the  district,  who  had  heard  of  my  vacuity,  and  had 
kindly  and  courteously  hastened  to  the  rescue  with  two 
cajjital  meat  stews. 

Oh,  that  I  could  perform  one  of  those  conjuring  tricks 
I  had  once  seen,  and  bring  those  dry  loaves  out  of  my 
mouth  in  the  form  they  went  in  ! 

But  it  was  not  to  be  done,  and  as  the  young  American 
lady  said,  "I  guess  if  I  take  any  more  I  shall  have  to 
hang  it  on  outside."  So  I  could  only  pick  delicately  at  the 
savory  dishes,  and  regret  the  past. 

"\\Tiether  coming  events  cast  thek  shadows  before  them, 
I  know  not,  but  there  was  a  dull  and  depressed  air 
about  Klissura  which  I  did  not  notice  in  other  Bulgarian 
towns.  Alas !  it,  together  ■v\'ith  Karlofer,  has  suffered 
severely  from  the  late  massacres ;  yet  how  prosi)erous, 
peaceful,  and  contented  was  the  latter  place  only  eighteen 
months  before ! 

It  is  in  this  quarter  that  Lady  Strangford  is  so  quietly, 
courageously,  and  earnestly  endeavoring  to  assuage  suf- 
fering, and  may  God  bless  her  persevering  work  of  charity. 

There  is  a  large  monastery  in  a  gorge  of  the  mountains 
about  four  miles  from  Karlofer,  amidst  grand  scenery, 
where  the  crystalline  rocks  and  contorted  strata  of  cal- 
careous clay  slate  are  very  prominent  and  interesting. 

I  was  now  approaching  the  point  at  which  I  intended 
to  cross  the  Balkan,  and  therefore  made  a  short  journey 
from  Karlofer  to  the  Bulgarian  and  Turkish  town  of 
Sopat,  by  way  of  Karlowa,  and  distant  about  sixteen 
miles.  Karlowa  was  a  very  prosperous  Bulgarian  town, 
and  as  I  passed  through,  I  heard  that  there  was  an  English 
governess  living  in  one  of  the  Bulgarian  families.  Know- 
ing that  she  would  be  glad  to  see  a  countryman,  I  went 


224  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

and  called,  and  the  poor  girl  was  perfectly  delighted  at 
the  opportunity  of  hearing  of  her  own  country,  from 
which  she  had  been  absent  for  two  years.  She  came  from 
Manchester,  and  I  have  since  heard  that  she  has  been 
married  to  a  Bulgarian  in  the  Protestant  American  Mis- 
sion, at  Samakov.  He  is  to  be  congratulated,  for  she  was 
intelligent,  lady-like,  and  good-looking.  Sopat  i^roved  to 
be  a  good-sized  and  prosperous  town ;  the  population  was 
composed  of  two-thirds  Bulgarian  Christians,  and  the  re- 
mainder Mohammedans,  including  a  few  gipsies.  It  was 
in  charge  of  one  policeman,  and  an  old  Bulgarian  told  me 
that  it  was  quite  enough,  as  they  lived  very  peaceably, 
and  seldom  had  any  necessity  for  calling  in  the  police. 

To-morrow  I  shall  cross  the  Balkan,  and  leave  this 
peaceful  country,  which  has  since  been  visited  by  such 
awful  scenes  of  horror.  I  have  given  an  unvarnished  ac- 
count of  my  journey  made  from  notes  taken  by  the  way. 
I  had  not  the  slightest  prejudice  for  or  against  either  Bul- 
garian or  Turk,  and  I  ask  my  readers  whether  I  had  been 
traveling  among  a  people  ground  down  by  oppression 
and  cruelty  until  they  were  about  to  be  goaded  into  mad- 
ness and  rebellion  ? 

To  say  so  is  a  wicked  libel.  I  have  no  excuse  and  no 
wish  to  excuse  the  carnage  of  last  year,  which  here  took 
place  by  orders  from  panic-stricken  authorities ;  but  if 
ever  retribution  follows  wickedness  upon  this  earth,  it 
should  fall  upon  the  heads  of  those  who  poisoned  the 
minds  of  these  authorities,  and  let  loose  the  organized 
band  of  murderers  who  had  orders  first  to  manufacture 
rebellion,  and  then  to  provoke  the  massacre  which  laid 
waste  this  fair  land,  and  cast  its  honest  and  contented 
people  into  the  uttermost  depths  of  misery  and  despair. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

ACROSS  THE  BALKAN. 

Freedom  of  a  Morning  Eide — ^Mounted  Police — A  Turkisli  Cabtle— Physical 
Aspect  of  Turkey — Central  Watershed — Climate — Destruction  of  Forests 
— Geological  Formation — Coal  and  Minerals — Roman  Roads — Lovtcha — 
Good  Quarters — Tirnova — An  Energetic  Governor — A  Turkish  Resident 
Landed  Proprietor — Hawking — A  Turkish  Dinner — A  Lonely  Ride. 

npRAVELINGr  on  horseback  is  an  excellent  way  of  see- 
-■-  ing  tlie  country,  and  if  accompanied  by  tents  it  en- 
ables the  traveler  to  stop  at  any  spot  which  offers  interest, 
and  by  this  means  much  information  of  the  country  and 
people  can  be  obtained.  The  sensation  of  setting  out  on 
a  fine,  clear  morning,  with  a  novel  country  and  people 
to  explore,  is  very  delightful.  In  Turkey  the  Zaptieh 
(mounted  policeman)  leads  the  way  as  a  guide,  and  on 
arriving  at  the  outskirts  of  the  to^vn  he  stops,  turns  his 
horse,  salutes,  and  wishes  you  a  safe  and  prosperous  Jour- 
ney. 

These  men  are  generally  well  mounted  on  very  small 
but  wiry  horses,  which  they  treat  with  the  greatest  kind- 
ness and  care.  They  carry  with  them  their  bed,  clothes, 
and  arms  ;  and  as  some  of  them  are  heavy  men,  these  lit- 
tle horses  frequently  have  to  carry  as  much  as  eighteen 
stone  for  a  day's  ride  of  forty  miles,  but  they  do  it  with 
ease. 

The  mounted  police  of  Turkey  get  a  bad  character  from 
some  people,  but  it  is  hardly  well  deserved.  They  are 
paid  so  little  by  the  Government  that  it  is  impossible  for 
them  to  live  and  keep  their  own  horses,  and  they  there- 
fore do  what  it  is  intended  they  should  do,  namely,  live 
upon  the  inhabitants  ;  but  it  is  a  mistake  to  suppose  that 
they  confine  their  exactions  to  the  Christians.  Wherever 
15  225 


236  TURKEY  m  EUROPE. 

their  duty  leads  them,  there  they  force  the  villagers,  of 
whatever  creed,  to  recognize  the  motto,  "Live  and  let 
live."  Of  course  such  a  system  opens  a  door  for  much 
abuse,  and  in  some  cases  the  power  of  the  police  is  used 
for  extoi-tion  beyond  the  necessaries  of  life  for  man  and 
beast ;  but  such  cases  are  the  exception  and  not  the  rule, 
and  the  Zaptiehs  as  a  body  perform  their  duties  well. 

On  the  morning  of  the  30th  of  August  we  were  up  and 
off  early  from  Sopat,  as  we  intended  to  cross  the  Balkan 
and  sleep  at  Troyan  that  night.  After  riding  for  twelve 
miles  along  the  foot  of  the  Balkan,  we  arrived  at  a  khan 
at  the  bottom  of  the  pass  we  had  to  traverse.  On  the  way 
we  passed  the  ruins  of  the  only  castle  I  have  seen  in  Tur- 
key, perched  away  up  the  mountains  upon  a  height  which 
could  only  be  reached  by  one  path.  The  architecture  was 
of  the  style  called  "perpendicular,"  and  it  must  have 
been  a  large  building,  but  I  could  not  learn  anything 
about  it  from  any  of  the  inhabitants  excepting  that  it 
was  "very  old  ;"  and  one  man  informed  me,  in  a  myste- 
rious manner,  that  it  was  "built  by  the  English  ! " 

I  must  leave  it  to  some  future  archaeologist  to  unravel 
the  mystery. 

We  commenced  the  ascent  of  the  pass  up  a  steep  path, 
which  zigzagged  up  one  of  the  numerous  spurs  which  run 
out  at  right  angles  from  ih.Q  main  range. 

As  I  shall  give  a  description  of  this  and  other  passes  of 
the  Balkan  in  another  chapter,  I  will  now  take  the  oppor- 
tunity of  the  lofty  elevation  of  these  mountains  to  look 
down  upon  the  land  of  Turkey,  and  notice  how  very  dif- 
ferent is  the  physical  aspect  of  the  country  to  that  usually 
depicted  in  maps.  In  looking  to  the  south,  across  the 
plain  of  Philippopolis,  the  Rhodope  range  rises  to  a  still 
greater  height  than  the  Balkan,  and  the  character  of  the 
whole  of  Turkey  in  Euroj)e  is  essentially  that  of  great 
mountain  ranges,  which  have  begotten  the  rich  alluvial 
plains  which  lie  at  their  feet.  The  gi-eat  central  water- 
shed of  the  whole  country  is  the  mountainous  district 
around  the  large  and  elevated  plain  of  Sofia.     It  is  from 


PHYSICAL  ASPECT  OF  TURKEY.  227 

here  tliat  the  whole  of  the  great  rivers  of  Turkey  take 
their  rise  and  flow  in  all  directions  in  their  course  to  the 
sea. 

This  suggests  that  these  great  and  fertile  plains  of  Sofia 
will  some  day  be  the  junction  of  many  lines  of  railway, 
which  will  thread  their  course  along  the  rich  valleys 
formed  by  the  great  rivers  which  emanate  from  the  central 
watershed.  It  also  gives  this  district  a  strategical  value 
of  much  importance,  as  the  elevated  plateau  is  of  sufficient 
extent,  and  rich  enough,  to  supply  a  very  large  army, 
which  could  debouch  into  the  plains  toward  any  quarter 
by  way  of  the  river  valleys.  The  principal  plains  are 
those  of  Macedonia,  Thessaly,  Seres,  Sofia,  Philippopolis, 
,  Adrianople,  and  Yenidge,  and  of  course  the  valley  of  the 
Danube. 

Unfortunately  these  plains  have  no  water-carriage  for 
their  produce  by  way  of  the  rivers  which  intersect  them, 
as  these  rivers,  the  Maritza  excepted,  are  for  the  most  part 
unnavigable  for  even  such  small  craft  as  barges.  The 
plains,  however,  from  their  formation  and  the  nature  of 
their  soil,  offer  great  facilities  for  navigation  by  means  of 
canals. 

The  great  mountain  ranges,  running  as  they  do  at  right 
angles  to  each  other,  naturally  produce  great  varieties  in 
climate,  and  an  isothermal  line  drawn  through  Turkey 
would  pursue  a  very  eiTatic  course. 

North  of  the  Balkan  the  cold  in  the  winter  is  intense, 
the  thermometer  falling  sometimes  as  low  as  10°  below  zero 
of  Fahrenheit,  while  in  summer  it  rises  to  96'  in  the  shade. 
Spring  sets  in  at  the  end  of  April,  and  winter  in  Novem- 
ber. 

South  of  the  Balkan  the  clinxite  is  also  severe  in  winter, 
nntn  the  Sea  of  Marmora  and  ^gean  Sea  are  approached, 
but  the  spring  is  earlier  and  winter  later  than  in  the 
northern  region.  As  we  ajDproach  Greece  and  Albania  the 
effect  of  locality  upon  climate  becomes  very  conspicuous. 
For  instance,  at  Yolo,  in  Thessaly,  the  orange  and  the 
olive  grow  to  perfection  in  the  open  ak,  while  in  the 


228  TURRET  IN  EUROPE. 

Macedonian  plains,  in  almost  tlie  same  latitude,  the  north, 
winds  which  in  the  winter  sometimes  sweep  down  from 
the  Rhodope  range,  prohibit  the  growth  of  any  trees 
except  those  snited  to  a  more  northern  climate. 

I  imagine  that  the  climate  of  Turkey  has  changed  from 
what  it  was  in  former  ages  through  the  improvident 
destruction  of  trees  by  both  Turk  and  Christian,  a  waste 
which  must  have  materially  affected  the  rain-fall. 

The  destruction  in  this  way  is  pitiable,  and  the  plains 
and  lower  hills  are  for  the  most  part  denuded  of  trees.  If 
wood  is  wanted  for  a  fire,  the  nearest  trunk  is  mangled 
with  an  ax  to  provide  it,  and  if  there  is  a  ready  sale  for 
wood,  down  come  the  trees  wholesale,  without  any 
thought  of  the  future. 

The  idea  of  planting  trees  never  enters  the  head  of  Turk, 
Greek,  or  Bulgarian.  It  would  be  a  present  outlay  for 
the  benefit  of  posterity,  which  would  appear  to  them  to 
be  the  act  of  a  lunatic. 

There  are,  however,  immense  forests  still  left  among 
the  higher  mountains,  where  the  oak,  the  pine,  the  beech, 
and  the  sweet  chestnut  thrive  to  perfection. 

The  climate  of  the  Macedonian  plains  is  very  similar  to 
that  of  Australia  ;  it  has  the  same  hot  and  usually  dry 
summers,  accompanied  by  heavy  dews  at  night,  with 
mild  autumns,  and  fitful  winters ;  but  occasional  frosts 
must  be  more  severe  in  Macedonia,  as  several  attempts  to 
grow  the  Eucalyptus  globulus  (so  common  to  Australia) 
have  failed. 

The  mountains  of  Turkey  are  not  covered  with  dense 
forests,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Carpathians,  but  wood  and 
pasture  lands  are  alternated  and  grouped  in  such  a  way 
that  it  not  only  benefits  the  flockmaster,  but  adds  great 
beauty  to  the  scenery.  Some  of  the  lands  at  very  high 
altitudes  contain  excellent  soU,  which,  although  covered 
many  feet  deep  with  snow  during  the  winter  months,  are 
partially  cultivated  for  summer  crops  by  the  nomad  shep- 
herds during  the  warmer  season. 

The  general  geological  features  of  aU  the  mountains  of 


GEOLOGICAL  FORITATION.  229 

Turkey  consist  in  tlieir  being  formed  of  tlie  crystalline 
and  eruptive  rocks  of  syenite  and  trachyte,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  northern  half  of  the  Balkan  range,  which  is 
of  the  cretaceous  system.  It  is  the  washings  from  the 
mica  schist  and  trachyte,  together  Avith  the  limestone  of 
these  great  mountain  masses,  which  form  the  rich  and 
fertile  plains  below,  where  the  alluvial  soil  is  frequently 
many  feet  in  depth.  The  great  plain  of  Salonica,  formed 
of  a  clay  loam,  is  in  places  fifteen  feet  in  depth  of  soil,  and 
is  probably  as  rich  as  any  land  in  the  world  ;  but  not  an 
eighth  of  it  is  cultivated,  and  although  K'ature  has  been 
so  bountiful,  man  has  been  neglectful  and  idle — at  least 
in  modern  days. 

The  mineral  wealth  of  Turkey  in  Europe  is  very  great, 
but  through  that  apathy  which  is  so  characteristic  of  the 
Government,  it  still  lies  undeveloped. 

Coal  is  found  in  numerous  places  along  the  Balkan 
range,  and  also  in  the  Rhodope  mountains,  and  again  near 
Mount  Olympus  in  Macedonia  ;  but,  with  the  exception 
of  a  bed  of  anthracite  near  Selje,  in  the  Balkan,  it  is  of  the 
tertiary -bro^^^l  character,  and  hardly  worth  the  expense 
of  working.  The  mountains,  however,  are  so  little  known, 
that  there  may  be  rich  coal-beds  yet  undiscovered. 

The  district  in  the  neighborhood  of  Mount  Pangseus 
(the  modem  Punar  Dagh)  was  in  ancient  times  celebrated 
for  its  silver  mines.  Herodotus  speaks  of  the  gold  mines 
of  Thrace  and  Macedonia.  In  Engell's  "History  of 
Ragusa"  there  is  an  account  of  the  large  gains  of  that 
city  made  by  its  contracts  for  working  the  gold  and  silver 
mines  belonging  to  the  Thracian  princes.  There  are 
remains  of  ancient  copper  mines  near  Yerria  (ancient 
Bersea)  in  Macedonia  ;  and  both  ancient  and  modern 
research  prove  the  mineral  wealth  of  the  country  to  be 
very  great. 

The  district  near  Troyan,  north  of  the  Balkan,  is  also 
rich  in  minerals,  consisting  of  copper,  argentiferous  galena, 
and,  probably,  mercury,  for  a  native  brought  me  a  good 
specimen  of  cinnabar,  but  I  had  not  time  to  go  and  see  the 


230  TURRET  IN  EUROPE. 

place  where  he  obtained  the  ore,  as  it  was  more  than  fifty 
miles  out  of  my  route. 

The  scenery  as  you  descend  the  northern  side  of  the 
Balkan  is  very  beautiful,  but  of  quite  a  different  character 
to  that  which  has  just  been  left  to  the  south. 

Far  as  the  eye  can  reach  toward  the  Danube  the  hills 
go  waving  down  to  the  plain  like  billows  on  the  sea,  while 
right  and  left,  on  the  nearer  ground,  are  deep  ravines  -with 
very  steep  but  comparatively  smooth  sides,  clothed  here 
and  there  with  forest. 

As  the  elevation  is  reduced,  the  hills  become  broken 
up,  and  the  mixture  of  cultivated  lands  with  woods, 
pasture,  hills,  streams,  and  villages,  reminded  me  of  the 
scenery  in  the  neighborhood  of  Dolgelly,  in  Wales. 

In  many  parts  the  view  was  much  disfigured  by  the 
custom  of  breaking  off  all  the  lower  branches  of  the  trees 
and  stacking  them,  with  the  leaves,  for  fuel,  and  also  for 
fodder  for  the  sheep  in  winter.  The  consequence  is,  that 
many  of  the  woods  present  the  appearance  of  groups  of 
bare  poles,  with  tufts  on  the  top. 

In  the  valley  which  runs  up  to  Troyan  I  came  xipon  the 
remains  here  and  there  of  an  old  Roman  road,  probably 
of  the  time  of  Trajan.  It  is  in  an  excellent  state  of  preser- 
vation, paved  with  large  flat  stones,  which  still  have  the 
smooth  iDolish  created  by  the  ancient  traffic,  and  the  curb- 
stones along  the  edge  look  as  though  the  road  had  but 
lately  been  repaired.  It  tends  toward  the  Balkan,  and  I 
expect  might  be  traced  over  that  range  ;  it  probably  after- 
wards joined  the  Yia  Egnatia  in  the  south. 

Becklemes,  or  police  stations,  are  placed  at  intervals 
along  all  the  passes  of  the  Balkan,  and,  indeed,  every- 
where in  Turkey  where  the  "busy  throng"  is  left  behind. 
There  were  reports  of  brigands  among  the  mountains,  but 
I  saw  nothing  of  them. 

Troyan  is,  or  was,  a  pretty,  thriving  town,  with  a  popu- 
lation of  about  5,000  Bulgarians,  chiefly  occupied  in  mak- 
ing cloth,  and  also  copper  vessels. 

They  make  a  curious  earthenware  water-bottle  here, 


LOVTCEA.  23;! 

"witli  five  moiitli-pieces,  and  a  finger-liole  for  regulating 
tlie  supply  of  water  to  the  moiitli  by  checking  the  admis- 
sion of  air.  When  a  novice  drinks  from  one  of  these  ves- 
sels, and  leaves  the  air-hole  uncovered,  he  presently  feels 
a  cold  sensation  under  his  waistcoat,  and  finds  that  the 
•water  is  trickling  down  his  neck  out  of  one  of  the  five 
mouths. 

I  could  not  make  out  what  was  the  origin  of  these  curi- 
ous vessels  ;  they  are  Etruscan  in  shape.  Has  the  form 
been  handed  on  from  the  time  of  the  Roman  occupation 
of  the  town  ? 

My  next  day's  journey  was  to  the  town  of  Lovtcha  ; 
our  route  lay  through  pretty  winding  valleys  and  rich 
fields  of  maize,  and  as  the  whole  of  the  cultivated  land 
was  sowTi  with  that  crop,  it  seemed  as  though  rotation  was 
not  fashionable  ;  but  a  bad  harvest  must  bring  great  dis- 
tress upon  the  rural  population,  as  they  have  no  other 
crop  to  fall  back  upon. 

Lovtcha  is  one  of  the  most  picturesque  and  quaintest 
places  I  have  ever  seen,  not  excepting  Tirnova,  which  it 
slightly  resembles.  It  is  a  straggling  town,  built  in  a 
deep  and  winding  cleft  of  basaltic  rocks,  which  rise  up  in 
lofty,  precipitous  walls  around,  while  tree's  and  minarets 
thrust  themselves  up  between  the  houses  here  and  there, 
and  add  to  the  general  effect.  The  rapid  flowing  Osma, 
about  one  hundred  yards  wide,  runs  through  the  to^vn 
under  the  arches  of  a  new  stone  bridge,  which  would  do 
credit  to  any  country.  The  whole  place  had  a  busy  and 
cheerful  aspect.  The  (in  this  part)  pretty  Bulgarian  wom- 
en, in  their  picturesque  costumes,  were  sitting  with  their 
children  at  the  doors  of  their  houses,  spinning  the  woolen 
threads  which  were  to  make  their  household  cloth.  The 
great  heaps  of  melons,  fniit,  and  vegetables  which  lay  in 
the  market-place,  surrounded  by  houses  with  overhang- 
ing eaves,  and  roofs  covered  by  great,  irregular  yellow 
slates  more  than  an  inch  in  thickness ;  the  brilliant  sun 
which  here  lit  up  the  many-colored  cloths  in  an  open  ba- 
zaar, and  there  cast  a  deep  shadow  to  form  a  proper  con- 


232  TUBKET  IN  EUROPE. 

trast — all  made  up  an  artistic  effect  wMcli  it  was  very 
pleasant  to  look  npon. 

A  Bulgarian  merchant,  wlio  was  the  owner  of  several 
houses,  most  hospitably  placed  one  of  them  at  my  dis- 
posal, and  as  it  was  situated  well  up  the  side  of  the  rock, 
and  overlooked  nearly  the  whole  town  and  winding  river,  it 
formed  most  enjoyable  quarters.  I  visited  the  Caimacam, 
who  I  found  had  been  in  the  Turkish  army  during  the  Cri- 
mean war,  and  I  received  every  possible  civility  from  him. 
He  took  great  pains  to  find  me  information  concerning 
landed  estates,  and  was  most  anxious  that  I  should  buy 
some  Government  land,  which  was  for  sale,  offering  to 
give  me  guides  to  any  part  I  might  wish  to  visit 

As  I  was  leaving  the  konak  I  visited  the  prison,  which 
consisted  of  two  large  rooms ;  the  outer  had  one  side  open 
to  the  air,  and  was  protected  with  iron  bars,  and  the  in- 
ner room  was  suflBciently  ventilated  with  windows.  The 
apartments  were  clean,  and  occupied  by  eleven  prisoners, 
who  were  laughing,  talking,  and  chaffing  the  people  out- 
side, as  they  offered  through  the  bars  some  knitted  bags 
for  sale.  The  prisoners  were  composed  of  Turks,  Bulga- 
rians, and  gypsies. 

My  lad  John  was  laid  up  with  a  bilious  attack,  from 
eating  too  much  fruit,  so  as  I  intended  to  return  to  Lov- 
tcha,  after  visiting  an  estate  about  fifty  miles  off,  I  left  him 
with  Pano  and  my  baggage,  and  went  on  with  Brophy  to 
Selvi,  a  prosperous  town,  about  twenty-five  miles  on  the 
road  to  Tirnova,  and  which  has  the  best  and  cleanest  khan 
I  have  seen  in  Turkey. 

The  scenery  was  beautiful  the  whole  way,  undulating 
hills  with  woods  and  cultivated  lands,  rich  valleys  and 
rivers,  and  the  great  Balkan  away  in  the  distance.  As 
we  rode  along  a  new  road,  as  large  and  good  as  the  best 
that  enter  London,  I  enjoyed  the  ride  much.  The  next 
day  we  took  the  same  highway  road  for  about  thirty  miles 
toTu'uova,  but  the  scenery  was  now  rather  monotonous,  as 
we  were  descending  to  the  Danubian  plain.  Tirnova,  like 
Lovtcha,  is  built  in  a  great  basaltic  basin  with  a  rapid  river 


TIRN07A.  233 

— tlie  Jantra — flowing  through  it,  and  which  has  such  a 
winding  course  that  it  nearly  makes  an  island  of  a  great 
portion  of  the  rock  upon  which  stands  the  citadel.  The 
depth  of  the  cleft  varies  from  1,000  to  500  feet,  the  houses 
are  built  on  a  plateau,  and  on  the  sides  of  the  cliffs  where 
they  are  sufficiently  sloping  to  permit  of  it, 

Tii'nova  is  a  very  strong  position,  but  no  advantage  has 
been  taken  of  the  natural  defenses. 

It  was  formerly  the  seat  of  the  Bulgarian  kings  after 
their  power  was  driven  north  of  the  Balkan,  and  in  those 
days  it  must,  in  a  military  sense,  have  been  a  position  of 
great  strength.  The  neighboring  country  is  prettily  laid 
out  with  vineyards,  gardens,  and  villas,  which  give  it  a 
European  aspect. 

It  is  the  seat  of  a  Sandjak  or  Liva,  and  we  visited  the 
governor,  Houssein  Pasha,  who  was  an  excellent  man 
of  business,  and  did  not  spare  himself  in  the  way  of  work. 
I  sat  in  the  court  for  some  time,  and  if  the  administration 
of  the  country  could  everywhere  be  carried  out  as  it 
was  at  Tirnova,  Turkey  would  soon  be  in  a  prosperous 
state.  But  like  all  other  Turkish  governors  in  those 
days,  he  was  "moved  on,"  before  his  labors  had  well  com- 
menced. 

The  khans  at  Tirnova  are  large  and  pretentious,  but  very 
bad,  so  much  so  that  I  had  to  get  the  loan  of  a  house 
among  the  vineyards  to  pass  my  second  night.  The 
person  in  charge  provided  us  with  an  excellent  dinner, 
with  wine,  a  capital  breakfast  the  next  morning,  and  the 
whole  charge  for  the  use  of  the  house,  food  for  Brophy, 
myself,  and  the  zaptieh  who  accompanied  us,  amounted 
to  thirty  piasters — about  five  shillings. 

I  had  gone  out  of  my  way  to  Tirnova  to  get  a  telegram 
I  expected  from  Constantinople,  and  now  doubled  back 
toward  an  estate  belonging  to  a  Turkish  Bey,  and  which 
lay  between  Plevna  and  Tirnova.  The  whole  of  this 
country  is  divided  into  large  estates  belonging  generally 
to  Turkish  Pashas  and  Beys,  whose  families  have  inherited 
them  for  generations,  and  the  tenants  and  laborers  are 


234  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

usually  Bulgarian  Christians,  with  here  and  there  a  Mo- 
hammedan (Bulgarian)  population. 

After  sleeping  in  a  rough  way  in  a  Bulgarian  village  at 
the  end  of  a  short  afternoon  ride,  we  pushed  on  the  next 
day  for  the  estate  of  the  Turkish  Bey. 

"\Ve  arrived  at  his  house  after  a  long  and  rather  monoto- 
nous ride,  and  were  invited  by  the  servants  to  enter  ;  but 
we  were  informed  that  the  Bey  was  not  at  home,  as  he 
had  gone  to  settle  a  dispute  which  had  arisen  between  two 
Bulgarian  Rayahs  who  had  appealed  to  him  to  act  as  ar- 
biter ;  but  said  the  servant,  "if  the  Chelibis  will  enter  and 
rest  awhile,  the  Bey  will  soon  return." 

The  house  was  a  large  and  straggling  building,  with  a 
great  kitchen,  and  sort  of  waiting-hall,  where,  as  in  feu- 
dal times,  good  fare  seemed  to  be  provided  for  all  who 
came  to  claim  it. 

The  numerous  rooms  had  no  pretensions  to  luxury.  The 
walls  and  long  rambling  passages  were  whitewashed,  and 
as  usual  in  Turkish  houses,  the  only  furniture  consisted 
in  handsome  carpets  and  cushioned  divans. 

As  we  were  left  alone  to  wander  where  we  liked,  I  felt 
a  little  nervous  for  fear  I  might  suddenly  stumble  upon  a 
nest  of  houris,  and  infringe  the  sacred  precincts  of  a 
harem ;  but  we  were  afterwards  informed  by  a  servant, 
who  approached  with  coffee  and  cigarettes,  that  our  host 
was  a  haclielor  ! 

This  visit  is  interesting  because  the  Bey  is  one  of  the 
very  few  resident  landlords  in  Turkey — the  more  the  pity. 
In  about  half  an  hour  I  heard  the  clattering  of  horses' 
feet,  and  looking  out  I  saw  our  Turkish  host  driving 
up  in  a  carriage,  with  a  pair  of  handsome  little  black 
horses  admirably  groomed,  and  accompanied  by  two  out- 
riders. 

The  carriage  was  a  strong  landau,  which  had  been 
bought  second-hand  at  Vienna,  and  had  the  arms  of  an 
Austrian  nobleman  painted  upon  it ;  the  harness  was 
brass,  mounted  with  the  same  arms. 

Presently  our  host  entered — a  very  tall,   stout,   good- 


A  TURKISH  LAXDED  PROPIilETOR.  235 

natured-looking  and  manly  gentleman  of  about  fifty  years 
of  age. 

He  received  ns  most  courteously,  and  we  sat  down  to 
more  coffee,  cigarettes,  and  conversation.  According  to 
TurMsli  custom,  Bropliy  did  not  touch  upon  the  object  of 
our  visit  until  about  a  quarter  of  an  hour  of  general  con- 
versation had  been  expended  ;  but  at  last,  when  the  Bey 
heard  that  we  had  come  to  inquire  about  his  estate,  he 
seemed  greatly  astonished  and  somewhat  amused,  as  well 
he  might  be,  poor  man,  as  he  had  not  the  slightest  thought 
or  intention  of  parting  with  it,  and  we  had  been  wrongly 
informed. 

Of  course,  we  made  all  the  apologies  which  could  be 
thought  of,  and  after  a  time  asked  if  we  might  order  our 
horses. 

"Nay,  it  is  late,"  said  our  host,  "you  must  be  my 
guests  for  to-night." 

It  was  a  lovely  warm  day  in  September ;  oi^posite  the 
house  there  was  a  large  fenced  garden  full  of  fruit-trees 
and  shady  grass-walks,  and  in  the  center  a  delightful 
arbor,  formed  of  vines  bent  over  trellis-work,  from  which 
hung  tempting  clusters  of  grapes. 

Our  host  said  that  we  would  presently  adjourn  to  the 
garden,  but  that  he  had  some  business  to  transact,  and  if 
we  would  excuse  him  he  would  not  stand  upon  ceremony, 
but  would  finish  his  work  with  his  people,  begging  us  in 
the  meanwhile  to  make  ourselves  comfortable  where  we 
were. 

I  now  had  the  opportunity  of  seeing  how,  at  all  events, 
one  Turkish  proprietor  dealt  with  his  Bulgarian  Christian 
tenants.  The  Bey  clapped  his  hands,  upon  which  a  ser- 
vant entered,  and  received  orders  to  shoAv  up  the  people. 

The  men  came  in  one  by  one,  stated  their  business  in  an 
open,  straightforward,  and  confident  manner,  and  without 
that  obsequiousness  which  is  so  often  seen  in  Turkey. 
Their  business  was  connected  with  estate  matters,  for  ad- 
vice upon  this  point  or  that,  would  he  settle  such  and  such 
dispute,  so  and  so  was  sick,  what  should  be  done,  and  so 


236  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

on.  There  was  evidently  most  perfect  confidence  and  good 
feeling  between  the  Bey  and  his  people,  whether  Christian 
or  Mohammedan ;  and  from  certain  parts  of  the  conversa- 
tion it  was  evident  that  the  former  looked  to  him  for  pro- 
tection fi'om  exactions  by  their  priest.  I  particularly  re- 
marked the  Idndly  way  in  which  he  dealt  with  his  people, 
and  the  confidence  and  satisfaction  with  which  his  opin- 
ion was  received. 

At  last  the  interviews  were  over.  He  apologized  for 
detaining  us  so  long,  and  asked  if  we  should  like  to  see 
the  stables.  He  was  very  fond  of  horses,  and  had  fifteen 
admirable  specimens  of  small  but  compact  animals,  but  I 
could  not  admire  a  tall,  gaunt-looking  Hungarian  horse, 
with  a  hollow  back,  and  standing  about  sixteen  hands, 
of  which  he  seemed  specially  proud.  His  principal  pas- 
time was  hawking,  which  he  appeared  to  thoroughly 
understand,  as  far  as  my  own  ignorance  on  the  subject 
permitted  me  to  Judge.  We  then  went  to  see  his  falcons, 
which  were  in  excellent  condition  under  the  charge  of  a 
falconer. 

It  was  now  the  cool  of  the  evening,  and  we  were  invited 
to  the  arbor,  where  there  was  laid  a  table  with  a  snowy- 
white  tablecloth,  and  on  it  several  little  dishes  with  differ- 
ent kinds  of  burnt  almonds  and  nuts,  salt  fish,  pickles, 
olives,  two  large  dishes  of  most  delicious  melons,  neatly 
cut  up,  one  of  the  jDink  and  the  other  of  the  yellow  variety, 
two  pint  decanters  of  raki,^*  and  some  biscuits.  I  was,  as 
usual,  ravenously  hungry,  and  a  horrible  dread  came  over 
me  that  this  was  dinner,  and  I  felt  that  a  meal  off  pickles, 
melon,  and  burnt  nuts  could  only  result  in  what  the  little 
child  called  ' '  a  pain  in  the  pinafore. ' '  However,  my  friend, 
who  knew  the  ways  of  the  country,  assured  me  that  this 
was  not  dinner,  but  only  a  sort  of  preliminary  canter,  and 
that  we  should  afterwards  be  invited  by  the  Bey  to  adjourn 
to  the  house,  where  the  great  meal  would  be  served.  But  I 
had  grave  doubts  on  the  subject,  my  own  experience  hav- 
ing proved  that  promised  meals  were  not  always  realized 

*  Turkish  spirit,  flavored  with  aniseed. 


A  TUBEISn  DINNER.  237 

in  Turkey.  We  sat  down,  picked  at  the  various  dishes, 
and  tlie  raki  was  handed  round,  but  my  host  notic- 
ing that  I  did  not  drink  it,  considerately  ordered  some 
win^  for  my  special  use.  Brophy  advised  me  to  imbibe 
all  that  I  intended  to  drink,  as  we  should  not,  according 
to  Turkish  custom,  have  any  liquids  when  we  adjourned 
for  dinner. 

But  there  is  a  certain  amount  of  romance  about  wine, 
and  I  felt  that  I  could  not  drink  "to  order"  in  this  off- 
hand manner. 

Time  went  on.  My  host  kept  talking  and  drinking 
raki.  I  commenced  by  picking  at  all  the  dishes  for  man- 
ner's sake  and  curiosity — then  I  did  it  to  pass  the  time. 
At  last  I  saw  that  one  decanter  of  raki  had  been  finished 
and  the  other  was  commenced,  and  as  we  had  sat  there  for 
an  hour  I  was  now  convinced  that  this  was  dinner,  and 
nothing  else,  so  I  thought  there  was  no  time  to  be  lost, 
and,  therefore,  attacked  the  melons  and  biscuits  in  real 
earnest.  But  I  was  mistaken.  When  the  second  decan- 
ter of  raki  was  nearly  finished,  our  host  clapped  his 
hands,  upon  which  two  servants  appeared  as  if  by  magic, 
one  with  a  towel,  and  the  other  with  a  dish  and  ewer,  and 
we  each  had  water  poured  over  our  hands. 

We  then  followed  our  host  into  the  house,  where  we 
found  in  the  center  of  the  room  a  low  platter  of  beautiful 
clean  zinc,  about  three  feet  in  diameter,  and  upon  it  three 
neatly- folded  napkins,  with  a  spoon  by  the  side  of  each, 
and  in  the  center  a  bowl  of  hot  soup.  We  sat  down  cross- 
legged  (a  most  painful  operation),  our  host  made  an  in- 
clination for  us  to  begin,  and  in  silence  we  in  turn  dipped 
into  the  bowl.  So  far  it  was  easy  work,  and  the  soup  was 
excellent. 

Four  servants  stood  around,  and  seemed  to  divine  by 
instinct  when  we  were  satisfied,  and  the  soup  was  whisked 
away,  and  instantly  replaced  by  a  dish  of  quails,  but  no 
knives,  forks,  nor  plates  !  I  felt  that  the  crisis  had  come. 
I  could  eat  a  good  fat  quail  easily  enough  in  my  fingers, 
but  what  to  do  with  the  bones  afterwards  ?   If  I  laid  them 


238  tuhket  in  Europe. 

on  the  platter,  I  might  be  infringing  some  sacred  law  of 
the  Koran,  and  thus  insulting  my  host.  I  thought  of  the 
Shah  when  he  was  in  London,  and  how  he  had  thrown  the 
cherry-stones  under  the  table  ;  but  here  was  no  table  to 
throw  under !  I  began  to  calculate  how  many  bones  I 
might  swallow  with  impunity,  when  our  host  delicately 
broke  off  the  leg  and  wing  of  a  quail,  ate  the  meat,  and  laid 
the  bones  on  the  platter.  I  had  devoured  two  quails  be- 
fore you  would  count  fifty.  Dish  succeeded  dish,  they 
were  all  beautifully  cooked  ;  stewed  meat,  kebobs,  stuffed 
vegetables,  etc.,  etc.  We  all  ate  in  perfect  silence,  and 
finished  with  washing  hands  and  coffee.  As  we  were 
going  to  start  very  early  the  next  morning,  our  host 
wished  us  "bon  voyage,"  making  many  polite  speeches 
in  Turkish,  which  we  returned. .  On  going  to  our  bed- 
room we  found  pillows  and  two  large  quilts  spread  as 
beds,  and  we  slej^t  soundly,  undisturbed  by  insects. 

I  afterwards  heard  that  our  host  was  very  much  re- 
spected for  his  justice  and  charity  by  people  throughout 
the  whole  district,  whether  Mohammedan  or  not. 

I  now,  with  much  regret,  took  leave  of  my  companion, 
Mr.  Brophy,  who  was  obliged  to  return  to  his  vice-con- 
sular duties,  by  way  of  Rustchuk.  We  had  traveled  so 
far  together  that  it  seemed  quite  unnatural  to  ride  off  in 
opposite  directions.  I  had  much  to  thank  him  for  before 
we  parted,  as  his  knowledge  of  the  language  and  of  the 
people  had  been  of  the  greatest  assistance  to  me. 

This  was  on  September  6th,  and  it  was  the  hottest  day 
I  have  ever  experienced  in  Turkey,  so  that  my  lonely  ride 
of  eight  hours  in  the  sun  was  not  very  enjoyable. 

My  route  lay  for  a  great  part  of  the  distance  along  the 
river  Osma,  and  I  noticed  an  immense  cave  in  a  cliff  on  the 
other  side  of  the  river.  It  was  at  least  fifty  feet  in  height, 
and  appeared  to  run  a  great  distance  into  the  hill. 

On  my  arrival  at  Lovtcha,  I  found  John  perfectly  well, 
and  Pano  as  bright  as  ever.  I  had  left  word  that  they 
were  to  telegrajDh  to  me  if  John  did  not  get  over  his  bilious 
attack,  so  that  I  was  prepared  to  find  him  in  good  health. 


ETHNOLOGICAL  BOUNDARIES.  239 

I  liacl  made  a  deput  at  Troyan  for  my  tents,  guns,  etc., 
and  I  now  determined  to  make  for  Samakov,  and  then  for 
Rilo  Monastii',  to  enjoy  two  weeks'  deer-stalking.  I  liad 
been  so  near  the  Danube  that  I  was  tempted  to  make  for 
it,  take  steamer  to  Belgrade,  and  from  there  pass  through 
Servia,  and  journeying  by  Msch  to  Metrovitza,  take  the 
railway  to  Salonica;  but  the  season  of  the  year  was  so 
advanced  that  I  was  obliged  to  give  up  the  idea,  and  thus 
lost  the  ox)portunity  of  personally  visiting  places  which 
have  since  obtained  so  much  interest.  It  is  curious  to 
observe  how  clearly  defined  are  the  ethnological  bounda- 
ries in  Turkey  in  Europe.  The  Bulgarians  and  the  Slaves 
are  as  distinct  from  each  other  as  the  Greeks  and  Circas- 
sians, and  although  they  have  all  been  under  a  common 
government,  Slave  families  do  not  appear  to  have  been 
tempted  to  emigrate  from  their  adopted  country  of  Servia 
to  settle  in  other  parts  of  Turkey.  Yet  the  vast  plains  of 
the  Danube  lay  invitingly  before  them,  and  there  was  easy 
communication  by  the  river. 

A  work  on  Turkey  in  Eurox^e  would  hardly  be  complete 
without  some  account  of  the  Slave  subjects  of  the  Ottoman 
Empu-e,  and  I  will,  therefore,  pause  in  my  journey  to  give 
a  brief  sketch  of  their  history,  in  order  to  refi'esh  the 
memory  of  some  of  my  readers  who  may  not  have  taken 
the  trouble  to  study  the  subject. 


CHAPTEE  XIII. 

OTTOMAN     SLAVES. 

Ancient  Slaves — Their  Eeligion — Their  Conyersion  to  Christianity — Battle 
of  Kossova — Assassination — Kara  George — His  Character — Rebellious 
Janizaries — Intrigue — Milosch — Russian  Poison — Despotisms  and  Misery 
— A  Reign  of  Intrigue — Peace  and  Contentment  under  Alexander — More 
Intrigue  and  Rebellion— Death  of  Prince  Michael. 

nnHE  origin  of  the  term  Slave  is  enveloped  in  a  certain 
-L  amount  of  mist,  but  it  is  generally  supposed  to  be 
derived  from  Slava,  wMcli  means  "glory." 

The  ancient  Slavonian  people  are  one  of  the  Indo-Euro- 
pean families  which  found  their  way  to  Europe  by  the 
Volga  road,  and  married  with  the  aborigines  Over  the 
greater  part  of  Russia. 

The  Ottoman  Slaves  are  comprised  under  the  head  of 
Servians,  Bosnians,  Montenegrins,  Herzegovinians,  Croats, 
and  some  emigrant  tribes  from  Eussia  which  are  settled 
in  the  Dobrudja. 

Latham  assigns  a  Slavonic  or  Sarmatian  origin  to  the 
ancient  Thracians,  and  if  it  is  so  the  Slavonic  element 
must  be  strong  on  the  mother's  side  amongst  the  greater 
part  of  the  Ottoman  subjects  in  Europe. 

It  was  by  means  of  Turks — that  is,  of  the  Huns — that 
the  modern  Slaves  were  introduced  to  their  present  quar- 
ters in  Turkey  in  Europe. 

In  A.D.  488,  Denghizikh,  the  son  of  Attila,  called  in  the 
aid  of  the  barbarians  from  the  Ural  and  the  Vistula  to 
prop  up  his  waning  power,  and  from  that  date  commenced 
their  wars  with  the  Byzantine  Empire. 

The  Emperor  Heraclius  strove  for  their  alliance  and  as- 
sistance. "Give  us,  then,"  said  the  Croats,  "some  land 
to  cultivate ; "  and  he  gave  them  Dalmatia.    Then  set  out 

240 


THE  ANCIE2i'T  SLA  VES.  241 

the  tide  of  emigration,  to  profit  by  the  liberality  of  the 
emperor  ;  and  hordes  of  these  barbarians  poured  into  the 
country  until  they  colonized  the  land  from  the  frontiers  of 
Epirus  to  the  Danube,  to  be  pressed  back  eventually  within 
their  present  limits.  They  are  described  as  rude  in  man- 
ner and  dress,  ignorant  of  all  idea  of  marriage,  their  relig- 
ion a  vulgar  fetichism,  their  occupations  the  chase  and  war. 
They  must,  however,  have  had  some  ideas  of  industry,  or 
they  would  not  have  been  so  eager  for  lands  to  cultivate. 
They  had  plenty  of  opportunities  for  indulging  their  love 
for  war  in  the  contests  which  followed  ^vith  their  rivals, 
the  Bulgarians  ;  but  although  frequently  beaten,  they 
were  never  subdued  by  that  race,  probably  on  account  of 
the  mountainous  nature  of  the  country,  to  which  they 
could  always  retire. 

We  have  seen,  in  the  chapter  on  the  Bulgarians,  how 
the  Slaves  became  converted  to  Christianity  by  the  labors 
of  the  missionaries  Cyrillus  and  Methodius,  in  the  ninth 
century  ;  and  their  communications  with  the  Byzantine 
Empii'e,  sometimes  in  war,  sometimes  in  peace,  gradually 
educated  them  into  the  ideas  and  customs  of  their  neigh- 
bors, until  they  rose  into  such  importance  and  power  that 
their  great  king,  Stephen  Douchan,  ruled  victoriously  from 
Belgrade  to  the  Maritza,  from  the  Black  Sea  to  the  Adri- 
atic, and  assumed  the  title  of  "  Emperor  of  the  Eoume- 
lians,  the  Macedonian  Christ-loving  Czar,"  *  a.d.  1340, 
with  Priscina  for  his  capital.  It  was  the  ambition  dis- 
played by  this  Servian  king  that  alarmed  Cantacuzenus 
for  the  safety  of  Constantinople  that  he  called  in  the  aid 
of  the  Turks  from  Asia  Minor  to  defend  the  empire.  By 
the  introduction  of  foreign  legions,  and  a  good  organiza- 
tion, Douchan  raised  a  formidable  army.  The  Ottoman 
arms  soon  began  to  advance  over  Europe,  and  twice  were 
the  Servian  forces  defeated  on  the  Maritza ;  but  the  great 
blow  which  was  to  destroy  their  independence  was  reserved 
for  the  battle  of  Kossova,  August  27th,  1389.  King  Laza- 
rus, who  then  reigned  in  Servia,  made  a  final  effort  to  re- 

*  Ranke. 
16 


242  TURRET  IN  EUROPE. 

pel  the  Ottoman  advance,  and  gathered  together  a  vast 
army  from  the  Slavonians  of  Poland,  Hungary,  and  Wal- 
lachia,  which  he  added  to  his  own  forces  from  Servia,  Bos- 
nia, and  Albania,  together  with  the  Bulgarians,  who  were 
now  his  allies.  But  although  the  troops  were  brave,  and 
ardent  to  be  led  against  the  Turks,  there  was  difficulty  in 
moving  so  many  independent  forces  as  a  comjjact  army. 
King  Lazarus  commanded  the  whole,  and  after  much  dif- 
ficulty gathered  his  forces  in  line  of  battle  on  the  plain  of 
Kossova,  north  of  the  little  stream  of  the  Schinitza,  and 
there  awaited  the  attack  of  Sultan  Amurath  I,,  who  was 
advancing  at  the  head  of  his  veteran  Ottoman  troops. 

Amurath  was  accompanied  by  two  princes  of  the  House 
of  Othman,  his  sons  Bayezed  and  Yakoub.  As  soon  as  he 
had  reconnoitered  the  superior  forces  of  King  Lazarus,  he 
hesitated  to  risk  a  battle,  and  called  a  council  of  war,  the 
usual  accompaniment  of  hesitation.  Conflicting  was  the 
advice  which  followed,  but  the  general  tenor  was  for  battle ; 
and  some  wily  generals  suggested  that  the  camels  used  for 
baggage  should  be  placed  inline,  and  driven  toward  the  en- 
emy, so  that  by  their  smell  the  cavalry  horses  should  be 
put  to  flight,  and  in  the  confusion  the  attack  be  made. 
To  this  Prince  Bayezed  wisely  objected,  saying,  "  The 
honor  of  our  flag  requires  that  those  who  march  beneath 
the  crescent  should  meet  their  enemy  face  to  face,  let  that 
enemy  be  whom  he  will." 

The  Grand  Yizier  consulted  the  Koran  by  opening  a 
page  at  random  for  prophetic  advice,  and  turned  up  the 
verse,  "  Yerily,  a  large  host  is  often  beaten  by  a  weaker 
one."  As  night  came  on,  it  was  decided  that  battle  should 
be  given  the  next  day. 

Amurath  passed  the  night  in  prayer,  and  when  dawn 
broke,  and  a  heavy  shower  fell  which  laid  the  dust,  he 
took  it  as  a  sign  that  his  prayers  for  victory  were  heard. 

Amurath  took  command  of  the  center,  with  his  Jani- 
zaries and  cavalry  of  the  guard ;  Prince  Bayezed  had 
the  right  wing,  with  the  feudatory  troops ;  and  Prince 
Yakoub  was  on  the  left,  with  the  Asiatic  forces.     On  the 


BA  TTLE  OF  KOSSO  VA.  243 

Servian  side  King  Lazarus  commanded  in  tlie  center,  liis 
nepliew,  Yuk  Brankovitcli,  on  the  right,  and  tlie  King  of 
Bosnia  on  the  left. 

Amiirath  commenced  the  attack  nnder  cover  of  clouds 
of  skirmishers  along  his  whole  front,  but  the  Servians 
quickly  threw  forward  their  right,  under  the  King  of 
Bosnia,  and  so  fiercely  attacked  Prince  Yakoub,  that  his 
Asiatic  troops  began  to  waver.  Amurath,  with  his  royal 
iron  mace  in  hand,  was  pressing  on  his  Janizaries  in  the 
center,  and  fighting  hand  to  hand  vdth.  the  enemy,  when 
the  report  came  to  him  that  his  left  had  given  way.  His 
right  was  not  being  so  hotly  engaged ;  he  therefore  did 
not  call  up  his  reserve,  but  sent  to  Prince  Bayezed  to  detach 
a  part  of  his  right  wing,  and  charge  the  Bosnians  in  flank. 
The  fight  raged  fiercely,  and  wave  after  wave  of  supports 
were  brought  to  the  front  to  maintain  the  position,  but 
victory  still  hung  in  the  balance. 

At  this  moment  Amurath' s  attention  was  attracted  by  a 
Servian  nobleman  of  the  name  of  Milosch  Kabilovitch, 
who,  galloping  forward  by  himself  from  the  Servian  ranks, 
made  signals  that  he  wished  to  parley.  When  safe  within 
the  Turkish  ranks,  he  declared  his  birth,  and  saying  that 
he  was  a  deserter,  demanded  that  he  should  be  taken  to 
the  Sultan,  as  he  had  important  secrets  to  reveal.  Arrived 
in  the  presence  of  Amurath,  who  had  paused  in  the  fight,  he 
knelt  at  his  feet  as  if  to  do  him  homage,  and  then,  quickly 
drawing  a  dagger,  stabbed  Mm  in  the  belly,  and  sprang 
away  to  escape  to  his  horse.  Three  times  he  was  caught, 
and  three  times  he  wrenched  himself  from  the  grasp  of 
Ms  pursuers,  but  in  the  melee  his  horse  took  fright  and 
fled,  and  he  was  cut  to  pieces  by  the  infuriated  Janizaries. 
Amurath  knew  that  he  had  received  a  mortal  wound,  but 
concealing  it  from  those  around,  he  galloped  to  the  cavalry 
of  the  reserve,  and  placing  himself  at  their  head,  charged 
impetuously  upon  the  Bosnians,  and  drove  them  back  in 
confusion.  He  now  ordered  a  general  advance  of  the 
whole  line,  and  the  great  Servian  army  fled  in  confusion 
before  the  Turks.   The  brave  Sultan's  strength  just  lasted 


244  TURRET  IX  EUROPE. 

to  enable  him  to  recognize  the  victory,  and  to  be  brought 
face  to  face  with  his  prisoner  King  Lazarus,  whom  -vvith 
his  dying  breath  he  cruelly  ordered  to  be  executed,  and 
then  expired.  *  The  battle  of  Kossova  was  decisive  in  the 
history  of  Servia,  and  henceforth  she  became  the  vassal  of 
Turkey ;  but  the  Bosnians,  in  their  mountain  fastnesses, 
still  kept  up  the  struggle  at  intervals,  until  the  battle  of 
Yama,  in  1444,  when  Hunyades  was  defeated,  and  with 
the  destruction  of  his  Servian  and  Bosnian  forces,  the 
latter  practically  became  subject  to  Turkey  ;  but  the  com- 
plete subjection  of  these  countries  was  not  effected  until 
the  victorious  reign  of  Mahomet  II.  At  the  siege  of  Yama 
an  incident  occurred  which  showed  that  Christians  can  be 
more  bigoted  than  the  Turks.  Hunyades,  who  was  a 
Roman  Catholic,  was  asked  by  George  Brankovitch,  of  the 
Greek  Church,  what  he  intended  to  do  if  victory  declared 
in  his  favor.  He  answered  that  he  would  compel  every 
one  of  the  inhabitants  to  become  Roman  Catholics.  Brank- 
ovitch then  went  to  the  Sultan,  and  put  the  same  question, 
and  received  the  reply  that  he  would  build  a  church  near 
every  mosque,  and  allow  the  people  to  bow  in  the  mosques 
or  cross  themselves  in  the  churches,  according  to  their  re- 
spective creeds.  The  Servians  who  heard  this  thought  it 
better  to  submit  to  the  Turks  than  be  subjected  to  the 
Latin  Church,  f 

It  was  at  this  period  that  most  of  the  nobles  of  Bosnia 
and  Bulgaria  adopted  the  Mohammedan  faith,  and  as 
lands  were  granted  to  any  family  who  could  produce  one 
son  who  was  ready  to  become  a  Mohammedan,  large  num- 
bers of  the  Bosnians  and  Bulgarians  accepted  the  terms. 

After  the  fall  of  Constantinople,  in  the  reign  of  Ma- 
homet II.,  Servia,  Bosnia,  Herzegovina,  and  Albania  be- 
came incorporated  as  part  of  the  Turkish  empire. 

There  were  occasional  attempts  on  the  part  of  the  Servi- 
ans to  shake  off  the  authority  of  the  Porte  ;  but  it  was  in 
the  early  part  of  the  present  century,  under  the  hope  of 
assistance  from  Russia,  and  when  Turkey  was  weakened 

*  Creasy.  f  Ibid, 


KARA  OEOIiGE.  245 

by  foreign  wars  and  the  dissensions  created  by  internal 
reforms,  that  the  Servians  thought  that  the  favorable 
opportunity  had  arrived,  and,  goaded  by  the  merciless 
excesses  of  the  Janizaries,  they  listened  to  the  voice  of 
the  hero — Czemy  George,  or  Kara  George,  as  the  Turks 
called  him — a  peasant  of  Topolo,  The  stern  character  of 
this  man  may  be  judged  from  his  earlier  life.  As  a  young 
man  he  had  fought  with  his  father  in  the  revolt  of  1787, 
and  after  the  peace  of  Sistova,  they  flew  before  the  ven- 
geance of  the  Turks  to  the  Austrian  frontier.  There  the 
old  man  paused,  conscience-stricken  at  thus  turning  his 
back  upon  his  native  land.  "George,"  he  said,  "stop 
and  listen  to  your  old  father.  It  is  cowardly  to  desert 
our  country.  Let  us  remain  and  give  ourselves  up,  in  the 
hope  of  pardon," — "Father,"  replied  George,  "I  know 
better  ;  I  have  seen  enough  already  to  know  what  our  fate 
would  be  ;  let  us  go  on." — "  Then,"  said  the  father,  "you 
depart  alone,  and  I  remain." — "Then,"  said  George,  "it 
is  better  you  should  die  by  my  hand,  than  submit  to  tor- 
ture." The  old  man  blessed  his  son,  who  plunged  a  dag- 
ger into  his  breast.  After  a  time  George  returned  to  his 
country,  and  became  a  herder  of  pigs  among  the  Servian 
forests.  When  the  Janizaries,  drunk  with  blood  and 
carnage,  entered  the  Schoumadia,  George  left  his  herd, 
and  fled  to  the  mountains,  where  he  succeeded  in  rousing 
the  spirit  of  the  people,  and  soon  gathered  a  large  force 
about  him.  He  was  unanimously  elected  their  leader, 
but  at  first  declined.  Much  patriotism  was  exhibited ; 
many  of  the  people  refusing  commands,  saying,  "they 
were  fit  to  fight  and  follow,  but  not  to  lead."  Kara  George 
attacked  the  Janizaries  with  vigor,  defeated  them  at 
Svilenoa,  took  Schabatz,  and  soon  appeared  before  Bel- 
grade. 

At  the  news  of  the  rising,  Sultan  Selim,  who  was 
threatened  by  a  revolt  of  his  own  Janizaries,  determined 
to  take  the  part  of  Kara  George  and  the  Rayahs,  and  sent 
orders  to  his  troops  to  support  him  against  his  rebellious 
dahis  or  chiefs  of  the  Janizaries.     The  united  forces  soon 


246  TURRET  ly  EUROPE. 

gained  tTie  fortress  of  Belgi'ade,  but  after  the  Janizaries 
were  defeated,  tlie  Sultan  found  it  no  easy  matter  to  bring 
the  Servian  Eayahs  to  terms  ;  they  had  felt  their  power, 
and  their  demands  rose  in  proportion.  The  result  was  a 
prolonged  struggle  for  independence,  accompanied,  as  in 
the  case  of  Greece,  with  internal  rivalries  and  jealousies. 
But  the  extraordinary  power  of  the  genius  of  one  man  for 
inspiring  courage  and  order  was  very  prominent  in  the 
person  of  Kara  George.  While  the  war  was  raging  with 
the  Turks  on  the  frontier,  and  dissensions  were  reigning 
within,  he  excited  the  enthusiasm  of  the  people  by  the 
recollection  of  their  former  power  under  Douchan,  and  in- 
duced them  at  a  favorable  moment  to  revive  the  ancient 
Assembly  of  the  Skupshtina,  or  gathering  together  of  the 
voivodes  and  their  followers  in  the  spring  to  discuss  the 
affairs  of  the  State. 

They  met ;  a  senate  was  convoked,  and  Philippovitch, 
who  was  named  secretary,  set  about  the  reforms  with  re- 
markable activity.  Each  district  nominated  a  number  of 
representatives,  in  proportion  to  its  population.  Taxes 
were  regulated,  the  rights  of  the  clergy  limited,  schools 
were  formed,  district  courts  of  Justice  established,  village 
magistrates,  and  right  of  appeal  to  the  senate.  Truly 
this  steady  and  cool  organization,  in  the  midst  of  war  and 
depression,  was  very  admirable,  and  proves  Kara  George 
to  have  been  a  statesman  of  the  highest  order.  Among 
the  chief  and  most  able  of  the  administrators  was  Mladen 
Milovanovitch ;  among  the  most  active  of  those,  whose 
first  object  was  his  own  ambition,  was  Milosch  Obreno- 
vitch. 

Sultan  Mahmoud  determined  to  crush  this  perj)etual 
Servian  irritation,  and  launched  such  a  powerful  Turkish 
force  against  that  country  that  even  the  military  ability 
of  Kara  George  was  unable  to  make  head  against  it  with 
the  small  forces  at  his  disposal.  Although  he  sought 
allies,  he  rejected  the  advice  to  apply  to  Russia,  saying 
that  it  would  be  throwing  off  one  tyrant  to  submit  to  a 
greater. 


KARA  GEORGE.  217 

In  his  despair,  he  appealed  to  Napoleon,  but  %vithoiit 
success.  Russia  the  whole  of  this  time  was  intriguing  \\dth 
Servia,  holding  out  hopes  of  assistance  and  friendship, 
and  withdiuwing  them  when  convenient ;  and  she  took 
care  to  keep  up  her  influence  with  many  of  the  Sei-vian 
politicians,  and  formed  g,  powerful  opposition  to  the  anti- 
Russian  Kara  George. 

It  is  probable  that  this  irritating  opposition  of  some  of 
the  leaders  of  his  o^vn  people,  on  whom  he  had  concentrated 
all  his  energies,  may  have  so  acted  on  the  emotional 
character  of  this  extraordinary  man  as  to  cause  him  to 
throw  up  the  affau^s  of  his  country,  and  end  his  glorious 
life  by  an  act  of  apparent  treason.  By  the  Treaty  of 
Bucharest  Russia  threw  over  Servia  ;  her  fortresses  were 
to  be  given  up  to  the  Sultan,  and  they  were  again  to  be 
reoccuj)ied  by  Turkish  garrisons. 

On  this  point  the  Servian  historian,  Cunibert,  says : 
"Such  conduct  might  promote  the  ulterior  designs  of 
Russia  in  the  East,  but  it  showed  little  justice  ajid  gene- 
rosity to  Servia." 

Kara  George  demanded  that  prior  to  giving  up  the 
fortresses  some  guarantee  should  be  given  for  the  security 
of  his  people  ;  but  this  the  Porte  declined.  Molla  Pasha, 
of  Widdin,  was  in  active  rebellion  against  the  Sultan,  and 
seized  the  opportunity  to  propose  joint  action  with  Servia 
against  the  Porte ;  but  the  Servians  declined  this  oifer  on 
the  urgent  representations  of  Russia,  who  was  endeavor- 
ing to  induce  Turkey  to  join  the  confederation  against 
France,  and  was  consequently  at  that  time  desu'ous  to 
save  the  Porte  from  embarrassment.*  Kara  George  now 
proposed  a  plan  of  battle  to  the  Senate,  which  was  most 
ably  conceived.  It  was  to  destroy  all  the  fortresses  on 
the  frontier,  and  concentrate  all  the  Servian  forces  in  the 
heart  of  their  mountainous  country  for  a  final  effort 
against  the  advancing  Turks.  It  was,  without  doubt,  their 
only  hope  of  success.  But  his  counsels  were  opposed, 
and  he  immediately  gave  way. 

*  Creasy. 


248  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

If  we  examine  the  character  of  this  remarkable  man  we 
find  that  he  was  extremely  petulant  and  moody.     Con- 
scious of  superior  military  genius  to  his  fellow-country- 
men, he  had  not  the  patience  to  combat  their  obstructive 
objections,  so  he  took  refuge  in  a  petulant  agreement  to 
all  they  proposed,  as  much  as  to  say,  "Learn  your  igno- 
rance by  bitter  experience."     His  nature  was  not  grand 
enough  to  rise  above  the  level  of  petty  spite,  and  it  seems 
by  what  followed  as  though  he  sacrificed  his  country  to 
this  feeling.     It  is  impossible  to  suppose  that  his  military 
genius  did  not  foresee  that  when  he  gave  the  order  for  the 
distribution  of  his  small  forces  over  four  different  parts  of 
his  country,  it  was  simply  to  court  defeat ;  besides  which, 
it  was  in  exact  opposition  to  his  first  advice.    The  Russian 
opposition  in  the  Senate  probably  so  exasperated  him 
that  he  gave  way,  and  allowed  his  country  to  be  sacrificed. 
It  is  sad  to  see  so  great  a  mind  brought  so  low.     Had  he 
remained  and  died  on  the  battle-field  in  defense  of  his 
country  he  would  have  been  one  of  the  most  illustrious 
heroes  of  history,   but  pique  overmastered  him.      The 
Turks  advanced,  the  scattered  Servian  forces  were  cut  up 
in  detail,  and  the  almost  heroic  Kara  George  gathered  up 
his  treasures,  and  with  many  of  his  voivodes  disgracefully 
fled  from  his  conquered  country,  and  took  refuge  in  Aus- 
tria.    Of  all  the  voivodes  Milosch  only  remained — the 
representative  of   his    country  and  of    Russian  policy. 
Milosch,   after  a  show  of  resistance  against  the  Turks, 
changed  round,  and  allied  himself  with  them,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  subjecting  his  country  to  obedience,  and  the  Otto- 
mans again  spread  over  the  land.     Russia  was  soon  re- 
lieved of  her  threatened  danger  from  France  by  the  defeat 
of  Napoleon,   and  had  no  longer  reason  to  court  the 
assistance  of  Turkey,  neither  did  she  now  approve  of  her 
growing  power  over  Servia.  Milosch,  while  in  aUiance  with 
Turkey,  secretly  fomented  a  rebellion  in  Servia  against 
the  authority  of  the  Porte.     When  aU  was  ready,  in  1815, 
he  placed  .himself  at  their  head,  and  dispersed  the  Ottoman 
troops,  leaving  them  only  the  fortresses  of  the  country. 


MiLOScn.  249 

The  moment  was  favorable,  for  intrigues  in  the  Ottoman 
Empire  were  rousing  the  Christian  subjects  to  rebel — the 
Porte  deemed  it  wiser  to  temporize.  ISIilosch  was  made 
Prince  of  Servia,  and,  backed  by  Russia,  obtained  exten- 
sive concessions  from  the  Turks. 

But  there  was  an  opposing  party  to  the  increasing 
power  of  Milosch,  and  this  party  would  gladly  have  found 
a  leader.  At  this  time  Kara  George  was  in  Bessarabia, 
where  a  Servian  named  Georgild  brought  him  a  secret 
message  begging  him  to  come  to  the  assistance  of  his 
country.  Kara  George  appears  to  have  informed  the 
Russian  consul  at  Jassy  of  his  intention  to  return,  and 
received  encouragement  to  proceed.  On  his  crossing  the 
frontier  he  was  shot,  by  whose  orders  is  still  a  mystery, 
but  it  is  attributed  to  Milosch. 

•  By  the  separate  Act  relating  to  Servia  in  the  Conven- 
tion of  Ackerman,  1826,  it  was  enacted  that  Mussulmans, 
other  than  those  belonging  to  the  garrisons,  should  be 
prohibited  from  establishing  themselves  in   Servia.     It 
having  been  agreed  by  the  former  concessions  to  Milosch 
that  the  resident  Mussulmans  should  be  expelled  the 
country,  but  that  time  should  be  allowed  for  their  emi- 
gration, we  see  what  a  fertile  source  of  misunderstanding 
was  thus  created,  and  we  also  see  the  intolerant  nature  of 
the  despotic  power  that  would  be  %vdelded  in  Servian  self- 
government.     The  Porte  soon  recognized  the  quarter  that 
directed  the  actions  of  Milosch,  and  we  have  the  curious 
spectacle  of  the  Sultan  taking  the  part  of  the  Servian 
people  against  their  rulers — in  fact,  despotic  Turkey  de- 
fending the  Servians  from  the  machinations  of  a  still 
greater  despot.     The  first  Hatt-i-cherif    confirming  the 
liberty  and  rights  of  the  Servian  people  was  issued  in 
1829,  and  followed  by  another  in  1830.     By  them    the 
Servians  were  secured  the  entire  management  and  control 
of  their  own  affairs.     It  also  stipulated  that  "the  Servian 
nation  shall  pay  to  their  Prince  the  sum  required  for  his 
maintenance  and  expenses,  but  this  sum  must  not  be  an 
intolerable  burden  on  the  poor."   Also,  "The  Representa- 


250  TTTRKET  m  EUROPE. 

tive  Council  sliall  not  be  dismissed  unless  they  have  been 
guilty  of  grave  oifense  to  the  Porte,  and  toward  the  laws 
and  constitution  of  their  country."  Twelve  months  was 
given  to  the  Turks  to  clear  out  "bag  and  baggage  ;"  but 
as  it  was  found  impossible  for  them  to  do  so  without  the 
grossest  mjustice,  the  term  was  increased  to  five  years. 
Milosch  grew  in  despotism,  trifled  with  the  formation  of 
a  constitution,  and  kept  the  country  in  a  ferment. 

The  Servians,  driven  to  despair,  appealed  to  the  Porte 
to  protect  them,  and  to  compel  the  Prince  to  grant  them 
their  liberties  ;  and  in  1838  they  obtained  a  fresh  Hatt-i- 
cherif,  and  a  charter  of  their  liberties,  w^hich  goes  by  the 
name  of  the  "Organic  Statute."  It  confirms  the  previous 
Hatt-i-cherifs,  limits  the  revenue  of  the  Prince  to  £20,- 
000  a  year,  and  directs  that  three  functionaries  shall  be 
appointed  directors  of  internal  affairs,  of  justice,  and  of 
finance,  these  ofiicers  to  be  responsible  to  the  Council  for 
the  management  of  the  affairs  intrusted  to  them,  and  to 
be  called  upon  annually  for  an  account  of  their  steward- 
ship. 

The  members  of  the  Council  were  to  consist  of  seven- 
teen members,  Servians  by  birth  ;  they  were  not  to  be  re- 
movable at  the  discretion  of  the  Prince,  and  they  were  to 
form  a  National  Representative  Assembly.  But  the  appe- 
tite for  despotism  of  Prince  MUosch  had  been  so  whetted 
that  he  could  no  longer  restrain  it,  and  he  refused  to  ful- 
fill the  terms  of  the  Constitution.  His  subjects  rebelled, 
expelled  him  from  Servia,  and  jplaced  his  eldest  son, 
Milan,  on  the  throne,  who,  dying  soon  afterward,  was 
succeeded  by  his  brother  Michael. 

The  two  parties  now  waged  a  war  of  intrigue  in  Servia, 
the  one  Russian,  with  the  Prince  at  its  head,  the  other 
Turkish,  supported  by  the  Servian  people.  Prince  Michael 
was  as  despotic  as  his  father,  and  did  his  utmost  to  in- 
trigue with  the  neighboring  Christian  populations  of  Tur- 
key to  effect  a  rising  against  the  Ottoman  Government. 
His  despotic  conduct  to  the  Servian  people  was  so  galling 
that  they  rose,  and  with  the  assistance  of  the  Porte  de- 


ACCESSION  OF  ALEXANDER.  251 

posed  and  sent  liim  into  exile.     In  this  extremity  who  was 
to  be  thek  leader  ? 

Kara  George  was  long  since  dead,  but  lie  had  left  behind 
him  a  son,  Alexander ;  and  the  now  aged  wari'iors,  Avho 
had  fought  beside  the  gallant  father,  thought  there  could 
be  no  better  representative  of  their  country  than  the  son 
of  their  revered  commander ;  they  therefore,  in  1842,  in 
the  name    of   the   people,   proclaimed  Alexander  Kara 
Georgevitch  Prince  of  Servia.     The  Por-te,   upon  being 
asked  by  the  foreign  powers  what  course  they  proposed 
to  take,  replied  that  they  should  consult  the  wishes  of  the 
Servian  people.     The  accession  of  Alexander  was  a  great 
blow  to  Russian  intrigue,  and  the  emperor  made  a  strong 
protest,  and  did  his  utmost  to  prevent  the  young  prince 
being  confirmed  on  the  throne  ;  but  the  firm  attitude  as- 
sumed by  the  Servian  people,  who  even  threatened  war 
against  Russia  rather  than  give  up  the  object  of  their 
choice,  restrained  any  forcible  interference.     It  was  with 
the  greatest  difficulty  that  Lord  Aberdeen,  then  Foreign 
Secretary,  prevented  a  rupture  between  Russia  and  Tur- 
key.    And  now  Servia  was  at  last  to  have  peace,  and  to 
be  left  to  the  quiet  control  of  her  own  affairs  under  the 
judicious  reign  of  Alexander.     The  Turks  had  not  left  the 
country  as  stipulated,  but  both  Mohammedan  and  Christian 
now  lived  peaceably  together,  and  there  were  no  longer 
complaints  of  Turkish  oppression  or  Turkish  outrage. 
Roads  were  made,  education  flourished,  and  for  eighteen 
years  Servia  advanced  in  progTess  under  Alexander,  sim- 
ply because  he  protected  her  from  the  effects  of  intrigue, 
and  was  a  liberal  ruler.    During  the  Crimean  War,  Rus- 
sia made  the  greatest  exertions  to  rouse  the  Servian  peo- 
ple to  attack  the  Turks  ;  but  nothing  would  induce  them 
to  swerve  from  their  allegiance,  and  the  following  remark- 
able memorandum,  which  was  then  drawn  up  by  the  Ser- 
vian Government,  stands  out  in  strong  and  brilliant  con- 
trast to  their  miserable  conduct  of  duplicity  in  1876,  and 
the  result  to  the  country  which  followed  these  opposite 
courses  of  action  points  a  moral : — 


252  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

"The  wliole  nation  is  perfectly  convinced  that  the  most 
precious  interests  impose  upon  it  the  maintenance  of  tran- 
cLuillity  and  order,  and  the  avoidance  of  anything  which 
could  involve  it  in  war  and  turn  Servia  into  a  battle-field. 
Filled  with  a  deep  gratitude  to  the  Suzerain  Court  for  the 
privileges  which  have  been  so  graciously  confirmed  to 
them,  and  for  the  attitude  which  they  have  been  allowed 
to  hold  during  this  war,  the  Government  and  people  of 
Servia  are  too  much  alive  to  their  own  interests,  and  too 
much  attached  to  the  happiness  of  their  country,  to  hesi- 
tate a  moment  as  to  the  line  of  conduct  to  be  followed : 
their  consciousness  of  their  own  situation  will  preserve 
them  better  than  any  threats  whatever  from  all  false  and 
injurious  measures. 

"In  other  respects,  since  the  war  has  broken  out,  has 
not  Servia  sufficiently  shown  that  she  both  knows  and 
will  remain  faithful  to  her  duties  and  obligations  1  Not- 
withstanding all  that  may  have  been  said,  she  has  never 
ceased  following  a  line  of  conduct,  retiring,  it  is  true,  but 
loyal  and  conformable  to  her  engagements.  Neither  will 
she  henceforward  deviate  from  this  line  of  conduct.  The 
Sublime  Porte  may  be  perfectly  sure  of  this." 

But  such  a  hapj)y  state  of  affairs  was  not  destined  to 
last ;  it  was  anything  but  in  accordance  with  Russian 
policy,  and  so  the  usual  "rebellion  machinery"  was  put 
in  motion.  Foreign  agents  were  introduced  to  the  coun- 
try, jealousies  were  fanned  into  a  flame,  suspicions  were 
fomented,  and  at  length,  after  great  perseverance,  an  out- 
break was  created,  Alexander  was  deposed,  and  Milosch 
the  despot  returned  to  the  country.  No  sooner  had  he 
entered  than  reports  began  to  be  spread  of  Turkish  op- 
pression and  outrages. 

Christian  brigands  were  introduced,  with  orders  to  as- 
sume Mussulman  names,  and  attack  the  Servians.  Mr. 
Long  worth  says  :  "The  object  for  which  they  were  hired 
appears  to  me  to  have  been  as  follows :  To  cause  general 
belief  that  the  Mussulmans  were  constantly  killing  the 
Christians,  and  to  create  disturbances  throughout  those 


B  USSIAN  INTRIG  UES.  253 

very  districts  wliicli  tlie  Grand  Yizier  was  visiting,  so  that 
it  might  hereafter  be  said  that  even  the  presence  of  the 
Grand  Vizier  was  not  sufficient  to  prevent  disorder  and 
nuirder."  Just  at  this  time  (1860)  the  old  Prince  Milosch 
died,  and  his  son  Michael  claimed  the  hereditary  right  to 
the  throne.  At  first  the  Porte  objected,  but  eventually 
gave  way. 

Prince  Michael  proved  a  willing  agent  of  Russia  in  the 
endeavor  to  raise  the  people  against  the  Turks.  He  en- 
rolled a  large  body  of  police  from  among  refugee  Monte- 
negrins, and  Christians  from  other  parts  of  Turkey,  who 
had  been  noted  for  their  crimes,  as  well  as  for  their  en- 
mity to  the  Turks.  Their  orders  were  to  intimidate  the 
Turkish  population.  Mr.  Longworth  says :  "  The  impres- 
sion made  by  this  system  of  terror  on  the  Turkish  popula- 
tion, who  naturally  shrink  from  a  collision,  well  knoAving 
by  experience  that,  right  or  wrong,  they  would  be  sacri- 
ficed, was  very  painful  to  contemplate.  The  Servians 
themselves,  conscious  that  they  were  driving  them  to 
despair,  declared  them  to  be  arming  ;  but  I  have  been  at 
great  pains  to  clear  up  this  accusation,  and  I  feel  con- 
vinced it  was  unfounded.  They  showed  great  patience 
and  forbearance  to  the  last." 

Then  followed  the  usual  programme :  murders  of 
Turks,  then  murders  of  Christians,  then  mutual  exas- 
peration and  bloodshed. 

In  1861  the  Prince  convoked  the  Skupshtina,  and  pro- 
posed the  following  three  measures  : — That  the  succes- 
sion to  the  principality  should  be  declared  hereditary. 
That  a  militia  of  50,000  men,  with  a  reserve  of  70,000, 
should  be  raised.  That  he  alone  should  represent  the 
Servian  nation  in  its  relation  with  foreign  Powers,  and 
should  conclude  all  treaties  and  conventions.  He  after- 
ward reduced  the  number  of  the  members  of  the  Skup- 
shtina by  one  hundred,  and  gave  himself  the  power  of 
dissolving  it.  He  also  limited  the  right  of  convocation  to 
three  years,  instead  of  leaving  it  annual,  and  in  other 
ways  took  the  whole  reins  of  government  into  his  own 


254  TURKEY  m  EUROPE. 

liands.  The  British  Government,  as  well  as  the  Porte, 
protested  against  this  defiance  of  treaties  and  obligations 
— ^but  they  only  protested. 

Shortly  after  this,  Russian  consular  agents  (agitators, 
in  point  of  fact)  were  sent  to  reside  in  most  of  the  towns 
in  Turkey,  and  reports  became  rife  of  a  general  rising  of 
the  Christians,  and  that  Servia  would  take  the  field  in 
their  cause. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  up  to  this  time  the  prin- 
cipal fortresses  of  Servia  had  remained  in  the  hands 
of  the  Turks.  Prince  Michael  had  at  last  worked  the 
Servian  people  up  to  a  proper  pitch  of  exasperation.  The 
Turks  also  were  similarly  prepared.  The  order  was  given 
to  attack  the  Turkish  quarter  of  Belgrade,  and  men, 
women,  and  children  were  indiscriminately  massacred. 
Mr.  Longworth  himself  saw  a  cart-load  of  slaughtered 
Turkish  women. 

The  Servians  fired  on  the  fortress,  and  the  Turks  com- 
menced to  bombard  the  Christian  quarters  of  the  town, 
upon  which,  of  course,  there  was  an  immediate  outcry 
over  all  Europe.  Russia  now  supplied  the  Servians  with 
arms  and  ammunition. 

At  this  the  Powers  remonstrated.  At  first  Russia 
denied  that  she  had  sent  them  ;  then  she  said  that  they 
were  but  few  and  trifling,  and  were  not  intended  for  Servia 
at  all ;  but  at  last  the  whole  transaction  was  exposed,  and 
the  truth  came  out.  Still,  the  foreign  Powers  allowed  the 
breach  of  international  law.  Turkey  now  became  alarmed, 
and  began  to  concentrate  troops  on  the  Servian  frontier  ; 
but  the  cry  was  immediately  raised  that  the  poor  Servian 
Christians  were  going  to  be  massacred  by  the  brutal  Turks, 
and  the  proceedings  of  the  Porte  were  denoiinced  in  the 
British  House  of  Commons.  The  government  of  Eng- 
land was,  however,  under  Lord  Palmerston,  who  resolutely 
fought  the  principle  of  the  binding-power  of  treaties.  Of 
the  other  foreign  Powers,  France,  Italy,  and  Russia 
were  foremost  in  support  of  Servia.  A  mixed  commission 
was  convoked  at  Constantinople  ;  the  Porte  relinquished 


H  USSTAN  INTRIG  UE3  255 

tlie  Servian  fortresses,  and  left  that  country  entirely  in- 
dependent, with  the  exception  of  the  trilling  tribute  of 
£20,000  per  annum.  How  useless  these  concessions  of  the 
Porte  were,  so  far  as  securing  peace,  and  how  evident  it 
was  that  no  concessions,  however  great,  could  prevent 
intrigues  against  the  Porte,  has  been  manifested  by  the 
conduct  of  Servia  in  1876.  In  fact,  the  whole  history  of 
Servia  for  the  last  twenty  years  has  been  only  a  part  of 
the  drama  which  is  now  being  acted,  and  the  closing  scene 
has  not  as  yet  appeared.  On  the  10th  of  June,  1868,  an 
abominable  conspiracy  was  formed  to  assassinate  Prince 
Michael,  and  he  was  brutally  shot  and  mutilated  while 
walking  in  the  Royal  Park  with  the  ladies  and  attendants 
of  his  court.  The  murderers  were  arrested,  and  turned 
out  to  be  enthusiasts,  whose  chief  idea  was  the  formation 
of  a  republic  ;  but  from  correspondence  in  their  posses- 
sion much  unjust  suspicion  was  thrown  upon  Alexander 
Georgevitch.  There  was  no  proof,  but  it  was  convenient 
for  political  intrigue  to  raise  a  storm  against  him,  and  the 
indignation  of  the  Servian  people  rose  furiously  against 
the  only  man  who  had  ever  brought  them  peace  and  hap- 
piness. Had  he  not  been  under  Austrian  protection  he 
would  have  probably  fallen  a  victim  to  the  popular  fury. 

The  independence  of  Montenegro  commenced  with  the 
early  settlement  of  the  Slaves  in  that  mountainous  coun- 
try ;  and  although  it  has  been  the  theatre  of  many  a  strug- 
gle with  the  Ottoman  power,  it  has  never  been  subdued  to 
less  than  a  tributary  of  the  Porte. 

In  1688  it  was  placed  under  the  protection  of  the  Vene- 
tian Republic,  but  was  restored  to  the  Porte  by  the  treaty 
of  Passarowitz,  in  1718. 

In  1796,  Montenegro  placed  itself  under  the  Protec- 
torate of  Russia,  and  although  a  tributary  to  the  Porte  it 
stiU  looks  to  the  Czar  for  support  in  time  of  need.  It  may 
be  caUed  one  of  the  great  Pan-Slavic  weapons  of  war, 
which  is  wielded  at  intervals,  and  always  inflicts  a  deep 
wound.  Pan-Slavism  or  Pan-Russianism,  for  they  are  in 
reality  the  same  thing,  has  produced  much  trouble,  and 


256  TURKEY  m  EUROPE. 

seems  likely  to  continue  its  work  of  carnage.  Pan-Hellen- 
ism, which  nsed  to  be  the  tool  of  Pan-Slavism,  is  now  its 
great  opponent.  Both  sides  are  adepts  in  the  art  of  in- 
trigue, and  are  said  to  be  i)regnant  with  secret  societies,  of 
which  Bucharest  is  the  head  centre  of  the  one,  and  Athens 
of  the  other.  Unfortunate  Turkey  is  the  field  where  they 
display  their  powers. 

The  one  has  for  its  object  the  establishment  of  a  great 
Slave  Empire,  which,*  considering  that  the  great  bulk  of 
Slaves  are  Russian  subjects,  would  probably  result  in  the 
extension  of  the  Eussian  Empire.  The  other  aims  at  the 
restoration  of  the  Byzantine  Empire. 

Russia  will  probably  favor  the  Pan- Slavic  idea  up  to  a 
certain  point,  until  in  fact  it  gives  her  all  she  requires,  and 
will  then  try  to  stamp  it  out ;  but  secret  societies  are  dan- 
gerous weapons,  and  they  may  prove  more  dangerous  than 
Russia  anticipates. 

There  is  another  colony  of  Slaves  in  Turkey  in  Europe, 
and  said  to  number  about  20,000  inhabitants,  in  the  Do- 
brudscha,  under  the  name  of  Lipovans.  They,  like  the 
Cossacks  and  Tartars  in  the  same  quarter,  are  Russian 
emigrants  who  have  arrived  at  various  times  from  the 
interior  of  that  country.  They  are  a  peculiar  sect,  who 
style  themselves  "Yieux  croyants,"  in  consequence  of 
their  ancestors  having  protested  against  the  assumption 
of  the  title  of  Supreme  Head  of  the  Church  of  Russia  by 
Peter  the  Great.  They  are  the  Old  Catholics  of  the  Grseco- 
Russian  Church.  The  Cossacks  of  the  Dobrudscha  are 
also  of  the  Slavonic  family ;  they  number  about  9,000, 
and  have  emigrated  at  different  times  from  the  Ukraine ; 
they  hold  the  same  religious  views  as  the  Lipovans,  and 
are  generally  found  among  the  fishermen  on  the  lakes  and 
rivers,  which  they  farm  from  the  Turkish  Government. 

I  have  shown  that  the  Bulgarians  are  frequently  num- 
bered among  the  Greek  population,  because  they  belonged 
to  the  Greek  Church  ;  in  like  manner  they  are  also  num- 
bered among  the  Slaves,  because  their  language  is  Sla- 
vonic. The  Pan-Hellenic  and  Pan-Slavonic  parties  each 
drag  at  them  to  draw  them  into  their  fold  ;  but  they  be- 


THE  E  VILS  CA  USED  BY  "A  GIT  A  TOES."  257 

long  to  neither  one  nor  tlie  other,  and,  except  by  marriage, 
are  sprung  from  a  totally  different  family  of  men. 

These  two  great  "isms"  are  the  ruin  of  the  population 
of  Turkey  and  her  tributaries.  If  the  people  are  let  alone, 
they  are  able  and  anxious  to  be  industrious,  and  to  ad- 
vance in  progress  ;  but  they  are  not  allowed  the  chance, 
and  the  constant  state  of  agitation  produces  a  feverish 
excitement  and  want  of  confidence  in  the  public  mind, 
which  is  a  bar  to  all  progress.  "We  have  seen  how  Servia 
prospered  under  the  eighteen  years'  quiet  rule  of  Alex- 
ander, when  Turks  and  Christians  lived  amicably  together, 
and  all  was  peace  and  happiness.  I  believe  that  this 
blessing  might  be  extended  to  the  whole  of  Turkey  if  she 
were  once  freed  from  those  curses  of  the  human  race, 
"agitators."  In  this  maledictory  remark  I  beg  to  draw  a 
broad  distinction  between  an  agitator  and  a  reformer :  the 
one  is  either  an  egotist  or  an  intriguer,  while  the  other  is 
a  patriot ;  but  they  are  too  often  confounded.  The  suc- 
cess of  these  agitators  is  derived  from  their  thorough 
knowledge  of  the  gregarious  nature  of  men,  and  how  they 
delight,  like  sheep,  in  following  a  beU-wether,  providing 
he  bells  loud  enough.  This  blind  following  of  a  leader 
was  rather  amusingly  illustrated  at  Belgrade  on  the  9th 
of  April,  1865,  when  a  requiem  was  being  chanted  in 
the  Cathedral  for  the  soul  of  Mr.  Cobden.  The  church 
was  crowded,  but  hardly  any  of  the  congTegation  had  a 
notion  who  good  Mr.  Cobden  was.  The  wife  of  one  of  the 
principal  statesmen  in  Servia  was  asked  by  an  English- 
man who  the  person  was  for  whose  soul  she  had  been 
praying,  and  she  replied,  "An  English  benefactor  of  our 
country."  How?  "Because  he  preached  against  the 
Turks."  But  who  was  he  ?  "Why,  the  husband  of  your 
Queen,  to  be  sure  I " 

The  good  lady  was  determined  to  give  the  highest  honor 
and  position  which  could  possibly  be  conferred  upon  her 
hero.  Those  who  "tallv:  down"  the  Turk  may,  therefore, 
contemplate  the  lofty  pinnacle  upon  which  they  may  hope 
to  be  placed  in  the  imaginations  of  the  fair  sex  of  Servia. 

17 


CHAPTER  XIY. 
turkey's  aesiy  and  navy. 

Turkisli  Military  Organization — Turkish  Army — Its  Composition — Military 
Education — Nizam- Ik htiat  Redifs — Cavalry  and  Artillery  Reserves — 
Material  of  War — Pay  of  Officers — Turkisli  Navy — Ironclads — Naval 
Education — Hobart  Pasha. 

AS  the  Balkan  range  of  mountains  is  one  of  tlie  natural 
defensive  fortresses  of  Turkey  in  Europe,  it  demands 
to  be  considered  from  a  military  aspect,  but  to  do  this  we 
must  open  a  wide  door,  and  through,  it  enter  into  the  mili- 
tary establishment  of  Turkey. 

This  will  lead  us  into  the  presence  of  statistics  and 
details  which  will  be  very  dry  and  uninteresting  to  the 
general  reader,  whom  I,  therefore,  advise  to  skip  this  and 
the  following  chapter. 

On  the  other  hand,  these  are  times  when  any  informa- 
tion on  such  subjects  may  be  of  value,  and  I  therefore 
offer  (for  those  who  may  be  interested)  the  information  I 
have  been  enabled  to  obtain,  and  the  ideas  which,  rightly 
or  wrongly,  have  suggested  themselves  to  me  ;  and  I  have 
endeavored  to  formulate  them  so  that  they  may  be 
judged  in  a  practical  and  professional  manner. 

Our  first  step  in  this  direction  will  be  to  analyze  the 
composition  of  the  Turkish  army  ;  but  it  is  hardly  neces- 
sary for  me  to  warn  my  reader  that  a  paper  army  in 
Turkey  is  even  more  unreal  in  point  of  numbers  than  it  is 
in  other  countries. 

The  Turkish  Army. 
An  army  properly  so  called  may  be  said  to  be  composed 
of  two  parts — 1.  The  Mental ;  2.  The  Physical ;  and  these 
again  may  be  subdivided  into — 

258 


777^  TUUKISn  AEMY. 


259 


1.    Mental . 


1.  The  ability  of  the  General. 

2.  The     standard  of  education    of 

officers. 

3.  Efficiency  in  drill  of  the  men. 

4.  System  of  organization. 

^  5.  Quality  of  material  of  war. 


the 


2.     Physical. 


1.  Strength  and  endurance  of  men  and 

officers. 

2.  Strength  and  endurance  of  horses. 

3.  The  magnitude    of  the   source  from 

which  men  and  horses  are  drawn. 

4.  The  quantity  of  the  material  of  war. 

5.  The  means  of  supply. 


Given  the  mental  and  physical  parts  of  an  army  in  per- 
fection, the  co-efficient  of  effective  force  will  be  mohility, 
which  may  be  measured  by  the  nature  of  the  country  and 
the  genius  of  the  general. 

It  is  extremely  difficult  to  measure  the  effective  force  of 
the  Turkish  army  by  the  foregoing  standard,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  obstacles  to  obtaining  accurate  information. 
Even  personal  observation  may  be  very  misleading.  I 
have  seen  several  regiments  of  Turkish  cavahy ;  some 
were  admirably  mounted,  and  I  should  have  gone  away 
with  the  idea  of  that  important  arm  being  in  excellent 
order,  had  I  not  met  other  regiments  with  horses  which 
were  such  weeds  that  for  all  practical  purposes  the  men 
were  dismounted.  A  stranger  seeing  a  regiment  of  Turkish 
volunteers  armed  with  Martini-Henry  rifles  would  natural- 
ly infer  that  if  such  admirable  weapons  were  given  to  the 
auxiliary  forces,  the  regular  army  must  certainly  have 
either  the  same  or  better  arms  ;  but  it  is  not  so. 

All  that  I  can  do,  is  to  offer  my  reader  the  best  statistics 
I  have  been  able  to  find,  and  to  supplement  them  with  my 
own  impressions,  based  upon  personal  observation  and 
hearsay  evidence. 

Proceeding  by  the  standard  of  efficiency  which  I  have 


260  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

drawn  up,  we  will  commence  with  tlie  mental  parts  of  tlie 
army,  and — 

1.  T7ie  Ability  of  the  SerasMer. — This  is  at  present  in 
nuMhus,  and  there  it  must  remain  until  the  next  cam- 
paign. 

2.  The  Standard  of  Education  of  the  Officers. — There 
are  several  excellent  military  schools,  both  of  an  advanced 
and  of  a  preparatory  nature.  At  the  head  of  these  may 
be  mentioned  The  College  of  Artillery  and  Engineering 
at  Coumber-Khauch,  in  the  "sweet  waters"  at  Constanti- 
nople. This  college  is  divided  into  four  sections,  of 
twenty-five  students  in  each.  The  course  of  study  ex- 
tends over  four  years,  and  the  whole  organization  is  re- 
markably good.  The  students  have  the  rank  of  Sub- 
LieutenantSj  and  receive  pay  at  the  rate  of  180  piasters 
per  month. 

The  Imperial  Military  College.,  at  Pancaldi,  founded  by 
Sultan  Mahmoud  II.  The  instruction  at  this  college  is 
excellent,  but  it  begins  at  the  "wrong  end,  and  turns  out 
Captains  instead  of  Sub-Lieutenants.  The  course  of 
studies  extends  over  five  years,  when  the  students  are 
drafted  into  the  army  -with  the  rank  of  captain,  and 
thus  lose  the  practical  experience  of  subalterns,  which  is 
of  so  much  value  in  guiding  the  interior  economy  of  a 
regiment.  The  college  is  commanded  by  a  general  of 
brigade,  and  in  1873  it  turned  out  103  students  as  cap- 
tains. The  supply  of  the  students  is  drawn  from  the  Mili- 
tary Preparatory  Schools,  which  are  eight  in  number — 
one  at  Constantinople,  and  at  Adrianople,  Monastir, 
Bosna-Serai,  Broussa,  Erzeroum,  Damascus,  and  Bagdad. 
The  course  of  instruction  extends  over  four  years,  and  the 
students  are  drafted  at  the  age  of  sixteen  into  the  Imperial 
Military  College.  The  instruction  consists  of  the  Turkish, 
Arabic,  and  French  languages,  history,  and  geography, 
mathematics  and  astronomy.  Each  school  has  six  pro- 
fessors, and  from  80  to  100  students,  with  the  exception 
of  the  one  at  Constantinople,  which  has  400  students,  and 
a  proportionate  number  of  professors. 


THE  TURKISH  ARMY.  261 

The  Constantinople  school  is  commanded  by  a  general 
of  brigade,  and  tlie  other  schools  by  colonels. 

The  preparatory  schools,  or  idadyeTi,  are  now  supplied 
with  students  from  elementary  scJiools,  or  rucltdlyeli., 
which  were  established  in  1875.  As  yet  they  are  only 
eight  in  number,  and  are  all  at  Constantinople.  They  are 
organized  on  the  model  of  the  idadyeli,  and  teach  lan- 
guages, calligraphy,  drawing,  mathematics,  and  geograx)hy. 
The  students  can  enter  the  preparatory  from  the  elemen- 
tary schools  (by  examination)  for  either  the  anny,  navy,  or 
the  military  medical  services ;  and  they  are  also  prepared 
as  clerks  for  the  civil  service. 

Th.Q  unitary  College  of  Medicine,  or  Tliibhiyeli,  situated 
at  Constantinople,  for  the  education  of  surgeons.  In  1873 
this  college  turned  out  thirty-three  surgeons  for  the  army, 
and  I  am  told  that  of  late  years  the  course  of  studies  has 
been  much  improved.  With  the  excei)tion  of  the  elemen- 
tary schools  at  Ghul-khaneh  and  Selamsig,  only  Mussul- 
man students  are  supxDosed  to  be  admitted,  ^^  but  some 
exceptions  are  made  in  favor  of  Christians.  Like  many 
other  Turkish  institutions  the  organization  of  these  mili- 
tary colleges  is  excellent,  but  the  results  are  small.  The 
means  of  education  are  there,  but  the  students  are  not 
'inade  to  profit  by  them ;  but  it  is  a  great  point  gained 
that  the  path  is  all  clear  for  reform  in  this  quarter,  and 
the  organization  ready  to  hand.  The  higher  grades  of 
officers,  such  as  generals  and  the  staff,  are  all  appointed 
by  favoritism,  and  without  any  regard  to  their  military 
abilities,  so  that  I  fear  we  must  place  the  standard  of 
education  of  the  officers  of  the  Turlcish  army  at  a  low 
level. 

3.  Efficiency  in  Drill  of  the  Men. — This  is  certainly 
faulty.  The  men  are  taught  to  move  quickly  into  their 
formations,  but  they  are  very  deficient  in  the  use  of  their 
weapons,  and  the  change  of  arms  from  the  Snider  to  the 
Martini-Henry,  which  is  now  going  on,  will  not  improve 
this  state  of  affairs. 

*  Becker,  Ubicini,  Vinceut,  aud  personal  observation 


262  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

4.  The  System  of  Orgamzation.—Tla.e  Turkisli  forces 
are  divided  into  four  parts — 

(1)  The  standing  army. 

(2)  The  reserves. 

(3)  The  levee  en  masse. 

(4)  Auxiliary  troops. 

The  standing  army  consists  of  the  Nizam^  or  regular 
army,  maintained  during  peace  ;  and  the  IJcMiat.^  or  fii'st 
reserve,  which  is  composed  of  men  who  have  served  their 
appointed  time  in  the  Nizam,  and  are  liable  to  be  called 
upon  to  fill  vacancies.  They  are  occasionally  taken  to 
form  comiDlete  regiments,  and  the  7th  Corps  d'Armee  of 
Yemen  was  formed  of  battalions  composed  of  these  re- 
iserve  men. 

Military  service  extends  over  twelve  years,  viz. ,  four  in 
the  Nizam,  two  in  the  Ikhtiat,  three  in  the  1st  Redif ,  and 
three  in  the  2nd  Redif. 

The  standing  army  is  divided  into  seven  corps  d'armee, 
composed  of  the  follo^ving  forces  : — 

1st  Coiys  d'Armee. — Head-quarters,  Const axti^^ople. 

Battalions.  Squadrons.  Batteries. 

7  Regiments  of  Infantry . .     21  —  — 

7  Battalions  of  Chasseurs.       7  —  — 

4  Eegiments  of  Cavalry. . .     —  24  — 

1  Eegiment  of  Circassians.     —  5  — 

2  Eegiments  of  Cossacks. .     —  8  — 
1  Eegiment  of  Artillery .. .     —  —  14 


28  37  14 

%nd  Corps  d'Armee. — Head-quarters,  Shumla. 

Battalions.        Squadrons.        Batteries. 


5  Eegiments  of  Infantry . . 

15 

— 

— 

5  Battalions  of  Chasseurs. 

5 

— 

— 

1  Eegiment  of  the  Frontier 

3 

— 

— 

4  Eegiments  of  Cavah-y . . . 

— 

24 

— 

1  Eegiment  of  Artillery. . . 

— 

— 

14 

23  24  14 


THE  TURKISH  ARMY.  263 

3rd  Corps  d'Armee, — Ilead-qnarters,  Moxastir. 

Battalions.        Squadrons.  Batteries. 

6  Ucgimeiits  of  Infautry. .     18                   —  — 

6  Battalions  of  Chasseurs.       6                   —  — 

1  Eegiment  of  the  Frontier      3                   —  — 

2  Eegiments  of  Bosniaks. .       6                   —  — 

4  Eegiments  of  Cavalry ...     —                   24  — 
1  Eegiment  of  Artillery .. .     —                   —  14 

33                  24  14* 

4:ih  Corps  d'Armee. — Head-quarters,  ERZEROUii. 

Battalions.         Squadrons,  Batteries. 

5  Eegiments  of  Infantry. .     15                    —  — 

5  Battalions  of  Cliasseurs.       5                   —  — 

4  Eegiments  of  Cavalry...     —                   24  — 

1  Eegiment  of  Artillery. ..     —                  —  14 


20  24  14 

Mh  Corps  d'Armee. — Head-quarters,  DAiiASCUS. 

Battalions.  Squadrons.  Batteries. 

5  Eegiments  of  Infantry...     15  —  — 

5  Battalions  of  Chasseurs ...       5  —  — 

4  Eegiments  of  Cavalry ... .     —  24  — 

1  Eegiment  of  Artillery....     —  —  14 


20  24  14 

^tJi  Corps  d'Armee. — Head-quarters,  Bagdad. 

Battalions.  Squadrons.  Batteries. 

6  Eegiments  of  Infantry...     18  —  — 

6  Battalions  of  Chasseurs. . .       6  —  — 

4  Eegiments  of  Cavalry....     —  24  — 

1  Eegiment  of  Artillery —  —  14 


24  24  14 


*  There  are  in  addition  one  regiment  (de  Cordon),  one  battalion  Miksiteh, 
and  one  regiment  Austrian  Frontier. 


264  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

'7th  CorjJS  d'Armee. — Head-quarters,  Yemeit. 

Battalions.     Squadrons.        Batteries. 

5  Eegiments  of  Infantry 15  —  — 

5  Battalions  of  Chasseurs. . .       5  —  — 

1  Squadron  of  Circassians..     —  1  — 

2  Battalions  of  Artillery —  —  6 

20  1  6* 

A  regiment  of  infantry  is  composed  of  3  battalions  of  8 
companies.  Tlie  complement  of  a  battalion  on  a  war  foot- 
ing is  800,  and  on  a  peace  footing,  as  a  rule,  450  rank  and 

file. 

A  regiment  of  cavalry  is  composed  of  6  squadrons,  ex- 
cept those  of  the  Cossacks,  which  have  only  4  squadrons. 
The  war  state  of  a  squadron  is  140,  and  the  peace  state  90 
horses. 

A  regiment  of  artillery  is  composed  of  4  battalions  of  3 
batteries,  1  mountain  battery,  and  battery  of  mitrailleuses, 
6  guns  to  each  battery.  The  guns  of  the  horse  artillery, 
and  those  of  one  battalion  of  field  artillery,  are  Krupp 
steel  guns,  similar  to  those  in  the  Prussian  service. 

The  strength  of  a  regiment  of  field  artillery  is — 

Men.  Horses.      Mules. 

In  war 2,340        2,632         119 

In  peace 1,400  600         — 

The  garrison  artillery  are  not  attached  to  any  corps 
d'armee  in  particular,  but  are  placed  under  the  orders  of 
the  Minister  of  War.  It  is  composed  of  2  battalions  of  4 
companies  each ;  and  the  war  strength  of  a  battalion  is 
564  men. 

The  war  strength  of  the  standing  army  will  consequently 
be— 

Men.  Horses.  Guns. 

Infantry,  168  Battalions 134,000             —  — 

Cavalry,  158  Squadrons 20,540  20,540  — 

Artillery,  90  Batteries 15,142  17,718  540 

Engineers,  2  Battalions 1,128             —  — 

Total ....  171,010         38,258        540 
*  Becker. 


TURRETS  AUMT  AND  NA  VT.  265 

The  peace  strength — 

Battalions.  Men.  Horses.  Guns. 

Infantry 168  75,000  —  — 

Cavahy 158  14,200  14,200  — 

Artillery 90  9,000  3,900  540 

Engineers 2  900  —  — 

Total 99,100         18,100      540* 

In  addition  to  the  foregoing  there  are  artillery  of  reserve 
and  the  stationary  troops  and  police,  which  may  be  com- 
prised under  the  following  headings  : — 

{a.)  Regiment  of  Artillery  of  Reserve,  which  is  organ- 
ized like  the  field  artillery.  Its  duties  are  to  make  experi- 
ments with  new  arms,  and  to  furnish  the  necessary  artUlery 
to  exiDeditionary  corps,  and  to  the  troops  of  the  reserve  ; 
it,  in  fact,  supplements  the  artillery  force  of  other  corps 
when  required. 

(5.)  Stationary  Garrison  Artillery  comprises  7  regi- 
ments of  garrison  artillery,  of  which  1  is  at  the  Bos- 
phorus,  2  at  the  Dardanelles,  1  on  the  Danube,  and  3  scat- 
tered among  the  forts  in  various  parts  of  the  country.  A 
regiment  is  composed  of  4  battalions  of  3  companies.  The 
war  strength  of  a  regiment  is  2,040  men,  and  the  peace 
strength  half  of  that  number. 

In  addition  to  this  there  are  detached  forces  of  garrison 
artiUery  amounting  altogether  on  a  war  strength  to  7,000 
men,  making  a  grand  total  of  about  21,000  in  the  station- 
ary garrison  artillery. 

\c.)  Corps  of  Military  WorJanen,  which  is  composed  of 
2  divisions  of  2  battalions  each.  The  total  strength  of 
this  corps  is  about  3,000  men,  and  it  is  stationed  at  To- 
pana,  in  Constantinople. 

(d.)  Gendarmerie  of  Constantinople. — This  corps  is 
similar  to  that  of  our  "  Yeomen  of  the  Guard,"  and  was 
organized  in  1869.  It  is  composed  of  distinguished  non- 
commissioned officers. 

{e.)  ZaptieJis,  or  Police  of  the  Towns  and  Country. — 
They  have  a  military  organization,  and  number  about 
20,000  t  men,  including  infantry  and  cavalry. 

*  Becker,     f  This  force  is  variously  estimated  from  20,000  to  75,000  men. 


266  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

(/.)  Medical  Estdblisliments. — At  Constantinople  there 
are  eiglit  military  hospitals,  which  can  receive  more  than 
2,000  patients,  and  in  every  large  town  throughout  the 
country  (where  there  are  permanent  garrisons)  there  is  a 
military  hospital,  which  receives  its  supplies  from  the 
School  of  Medicine  at  Constantinople.  The  sick  are,  as 
a  rule,  well  cared  for. 

{g.)  TlieBeserties. — They  are  divided  into  the  first  and 
second  Redifs. 

The  \st  Redifs  are  composed  of  120  battalions  of  in- 
fantry, of  eight  companies  each.  To  each  of  the  first  five 
corps  d'  armee  twenty-four  battalions  of  the  1st  Redifs  are 
attached.  Those  of  the  6th  Corps  are  not  yet  organized, 
and  the  7th  Corps  has  no  reserves. 

The  men  serve  for  three  years  (after  leaving  the  Ikhtiat), 
and  then  pass  into  the  2nd  Redif. 

The  Redifs  should  properly  be  called  up  for  one  month's 
drill  in  each  year,  but  from  motives  of  economy  the  law 
has  been  neglected  in  this  respect. 

The  Redifs  are  composed  only  of  infantry.  The  reserve 
of  cavalry  is  supplied  from  the  auxiliary  forces,  and  the 
artillery  from  the  artillery  reserve. 

According  to  regulation,  the  1st  Redifs  should  amount 
to  120  battalions  of  800  men  each,  giving  a  total  of  96,000 
men. 

The  '^nd  Redifs  are  organized  in  the  same  manner,  and 
should  give  also  120  battalions  of  800  men  each ;  but 
about  sixty  battalions  are,  I  believe,  the  most  that  could 
mustered."^ 

(3.)  T7ie  '•'■Levee  en  Masse^^  {Moustafiz). — The  Minister 
of  War  estimates  the  number  of  men  which  could  thus  be 
obtained  at  250,000,  but  there  is  no  organization  for  them. 
They  might,  however,  be  utilized  for  filling  vacancies. 
Properly  speaking,  the  Moustafiz  are  not  legally  liable  to 
serve  away  from  their  own  district,  but  in  cases  of  great 
emergency  they  would,  doubtless,  be  forced  to  recruit  the 
regular  army. 

(4.)  Auxiliary  Forces. — These  are  of  two  kinds — ^the 

*1874. 


TURRETS  ARMT  AND  NA  7  T.  267 

volunteers,  or  Baslii-Bazouks,  and  tlie  contingents  from 
the  different  tribes  and  tributaries. 

The  Bashi-Bazouks  are  organized  like  the  !N'izam,  and 
are  principally  infantry;  but  they  are  an  undisciplined 
set  of  brigands. 

The  contingents  from  the  tribes  of  Arabs,  Kurds,  etc., 
form  an  admkable  force  of  irregular  cavalry ;  they  are 
commanded  by  their  own  chiefs,  who  have  unlimited 
power  over  their  men. 

During  the  Crimean  "War  there  were  30,000  Bashi-Ba- 
zouks and  10,000  tribal  in-egular  cavahy,  and  probably  an 
equal  force  could  be  raised  in  the  present  day  ;  and  if  the 
Bashi-Bazouks  were  officered  with  Europeans  (as  they 
were  during  the  Crimean  AVar)  they  would,  in  the  course 
of  twelve  months,  form  a  very  valuable  reserve.  Although 
a  wild  set  of  men,  they  are  amenable  to  discipline.  At  the 
close  of  the  Crimean  War,  when  they  were  disbanded, 
each  regiment  was  marched  to  its  own  part  of  the  country, 
where  it  was  dismissed,  and  each  man  received  the  arms 
he  carried,  together  with  an  English  sovereign.  During 
these  marches  the  discipline  of  the  men  was  admirable. 

The  following,  then,  is  a  summary  of  the  total  forces 
available,  07i  pape?',  to  the  Ottoman  Government  in  event 
of  war : — 

Men,  Horses.  Guns. 

Infantry,  Standing  Army,  168  Battalions..  134,000  —  — 

"       IstRedifs 120          "     ...     96,000  —  — 

2ndEedifs 120          '*     ...     96,000  —  — 

Levee  en  Masse 250,000  —  — 

Cavalry,  Standing  Army,  158  Squadrons..     20,540  20,540  — 

"       Auxiliary 10,000  10,000  — 

Artillery,  Horse  and  Field,  90  Batteries. . .     15,043  17,718  540 

Eeserve 14        "       ...       2,340  2,751  84 

"       Garrison 7  Eegiments..     14,280  —  — 

"       Detachments 20         "       ...       7,000  —  — 

Engineers 2  Battahons. .       1,128  —  — 

Zaptiehs 20,000  —  — 


Total....  666,530     51,009     624 


268  TURKEY  m  EUROPE. 

The  deficiency  here  is  evidently  in  dismounted  men  in 
tlie  cavalry  and  in  the  strength  of  the  engineers. 

The  men  for  the  regular  army  are,  by  the  decree  of 
1869,  recruited  from  the  Mussulman  population  by  con- 
scription. 

Their  first  drawing  commences  when  they  are  twenty 
years  of  age  ;  if  they  draw  a  blank  they  again  come  up 
the  following  year,  and  so  on  until  twenty-six  years  of 
age,  at  which  time,  if  they  have  drawn  six  blanks,  they 
pass  at  once  into  the  reserve. 

This  plan  has  gi'eat  inconveniences,  as  it  obliges  men 
to  travel  sometimes  long  distances  every  year  for  their 
"drawing,"  and  keeps  them  in  an  unsettled  state  as  to 
their  future. 

Moreover,  it  passes  men  into  the  reserve  who  have  not 
had  a  military  training. 

The  exemi3tions  are,  members  of  the  legal  profession 
and  priests,  and  the  only  sons  of  families.  Exemption, 
and  also  discharge,  can  be  purchased,  according  to  pres- 
ent arrangements,  for  from  £40  to  £50  Turkish,  equal  to 
about  £36  to  £45  sterling.  The  price  before  1869  was  £73 
sterling ;  and  the  Government  received  rather  a  startling 
example  of  the  dislike  to  military  service,  when  the  re- 
duction in  the  price  of  discharge  was  made.  In  the 
Brd  Army  Corps  no  less  than  4,000  men  applied  for  their 
discharge  in  1869,  while  the  average  number  in  previous 
years  before  the  reduction  of  cost  of  discharge  was  only 
400! 

The  production  of  such  a  large  sum  of  money  repre- 
sented by  the  discharge  of  4,000  men,  £200,000  in  one  dis- 
trict, was  so  unexpected  that  inquiries  were  set  on  foot  to 
discover  how  the  money  had  been  produced,  and  it  was 
found  that  it  had  been  obtained  by  the  sale  of  landed 
property,  in  most  cases  to  Christians.  Much  bribery  is 
practiced  in  the  purchase  of  exemptions.  One  of  the 
officers  sent  to  the  Monastir  district  was  discovered  to 
have  pocketed  as  much  as  £6,000  for  letting  off  1,600  re- 
cruits. 


TURRETS  ARMY  AND  NA  VY.  269 

The  Brigade  of  Cossacks  is  tlie  only  corps  in  -wliicli 
Christians  are  at  present  admitted  into  the  rank  and  file. 
It  is  recruited  from  volunteers.  At  first  the  Christians 
predominated,  but  now  the  reverse  is  the  case. 

By  law,  the  annual  contingent  of  recruits  is  fixed  at 
37,500,  but  the  real  number  does  not  exceed  25,000 
men. 

Recruiting  is  divided  into  districts  corresponding  with 
the  head-quarters  of  the  corps  d'armee.  In  each  district 
the  levy  of  recruits  is  made  by  a  commission  nominated 
by  the  general  of  the  corps  d'armee,  and  composed  of  one 
superior  officer,  one  doctor,  one  mollah,  one  secretary,  and 
the  members  of  the  Medjlis  or  civil  court.* 

I  have  already  alluded  to  the  education  of  officers,  but 
they  do  not  all  pass  through  that  course.  Some  are  raised 
from  the  ranks,  and  others  appointed  by  favor,  and  so 
little  pains  is  taken  to  teach  them  their  duties  after  they 
enter  the  service,  that  those  from  the  military  colleges 
forget  what  they  have  learned,  and  the  knowledge  of  the 
others  is  infinitesimal. 

The  recruiting  of  horses,  or  remounts,  comes  under  the 
head  of  two  systems.  Agents  are  sent  by  the  Minister  of 
War  to  foreign  countries  (principally  Hungary)  to  purchase 
horses,  and  purchases  are  made  in  the  military  districts 
by  commissions  nominated  by  the  general  of  the  corps 
d'armee,  and  sometimes  by  the  colonels  of  regiments. 

The  artUlery  purchase  the  greater  part  of  their  horses 
abroad,  in  Hungary,  Transylvania,  and  in  Bessarabia ; 
there  would,  therefore,  be  great  difficulty  in  getting  re- 
mounts for  this  branch  of  the  service  during  war,  as  the 
Turkish  horses  are  so  small  that  they  are  unfitted  for  the 
use  of  artillery. 

Administration  of  the  Army. 

The  Sultan  is  the  supreme  head  of  all  the  forces  by  land 
and  sea.  Next  to  him  comes  the  Grand  Vizier.  The 
Minister  of  War,  or  SerasMer,  directs  under  his  orders 
the  various  services. 

*  Becker. 


270  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

The  Ministry  of  War  is  divided  as  follows  :— 

(1.)  The  Grand  Military  Council  (Dari-Choura) ;  (2.) 
Council  of  Topana. 

Under  the  orders  of  the  Minister  of  War  are  the  fol- 
lowing officers  : — 

The  Generals  in  command  of  the  seven  corps  d'armee. 

The  Generals  of  Divisions  and  Brigades  which  may  be 
temporarily  created. 

The  Central  Commission  of  Reserves. 

The  Grand  Military  Council. 

(1.)  The  Council  Proper,  composed  of  the  Minister  of 
War,  a  Field-Marshal  (Mouchir),  as  President,  six  Gen- 
erals of  Division,  and  one  General  of  Brigade. 

(2.)  The  departments  which  include  the  Adjutant-Gen- 
eral, Quartermaster-General,  Paymaster-General,  and  Gen- 
eral of  the  Staff,  or  Military  Secretary. 

The  Council  of  Topana,  under  the  presidency  of  the 
Chief  of  Artillery,  furnishes  and  controls  the  material  of 
war  and  all  military  manufacturing  establishments.  The 
corps  of  workmen  are  under  their  direction. 

The  Seven  Corps  W  Armee  are  each  commanded  by  a 
Field-Marshal,  who  is  assisted  by  the  Etat  Major,  the 
Military  Council,  and  a  Sub-Commission  of  Redifs. 

The  Etat  Major  is  composed  of  the  Field-Marshal  and 
his  staff  of  four  Generals  of  Division  (of  which  one  is  Presi- 
dent of  the  Military  Council)  ;  five  Generals  of  Brigade, 
one  of  which  is  the  Chief  of  Artillery,  and  another  Presi- 
dent of  the  Sub-Commission  of  Redifs  ;  four  Colonels  or 
Lieutenant-Colonels  ;  the  Senior  Officer  of  Engineers  ;  one 
Surgeon-Major;  one  Officer  of  "  Intendance  ; "  two  of 
Control ;  and  one  Accountant. 

Through  this  staff  the  Commander-in-Chief  can  put 
himself  into  communication  with  every  part  of  the  corps 
d'armee. 

The  Military  Council  is  composed  of  a  General  of  Divis- 
ion (as  President),  some  Generals  of  Brigade  or  Colonels, 
an  Assistant  Adjutant-General,  a  Surgeon-Major,  and  a 
Secretary.    It  is  in  communication   with  the    Military 


TURRETS  ARMY  AND  NA  VY.  271 

Council  at  Constantinople,  and  directs  tlie  Adjutant- 
General's  department  of  the  corps  d'armee  ;  but  such  a 
division  of  authority  cannot  do  otherwise  than  create 
confusion. 

Regiments  or  battalions  which  are  on  detached  service 
are  only  responsible  to  the  Military  Council  at  Constanti- 
nople. 

The  Sub-Commission  of  Red  if s,  presided  over  by  a 
General  of  Brigade,  attends  to  the  conscription,  and  to  the 
calling  up  of  the  Ikhtiat  and  Redifs.  The  main  principle 
of  this  organization  is  that  all  tactical  movements  shall  be 
under  the  dii-ection  of  the  Commander-in-Chief  of  the 
corps  d'armee,  while  the  administration  is  under  the  con- 
trol of  the  Military  Council  at  Constantinople — two  mas- 
ters in  one  house — which  must  prove  a  certain  source  of 
difficulty,  delay,  and  confusion. 

Special  commands  are  formed  in  certain  parts  of  the 
empire  where  disaffection  is  anticipated.  The  troops 
which  compose  them  are  taken  from  the  district  corps 
d'armee,  but  the  commandant  reports  direct  to  Constanti- 
nople.    Another  imperium  in  imperio. 

There  are  six  of  these  commands  : — 

1.  That  on  the  frontier  of  Bosnia  and  Servia,  which 
generally  consists  of  about  8,000  men,  and  is  drawn  from 
the  5th  Corps  d'Armee. 

2.  The  Brigade  of  Herzegovina,  of  about  5,000  men, 
also  drawn  from  the  3rd  Corps. 

3.  The  Brigade  of  Thessaly,  whose  duty  it  is  to  keep 
down  brigandage  on  the  Greek  frontier,  composed  of 
about  3,000  men,  also  drawn  from  the  3rd  Corps, 

4.  The  Brigade  of  Tripoli  and  Barbary,  composed  of  a 
regiment  and  a  battalion  of  Chasseurs  from  the  1st  Corps 
d'Armee. 

5.  The  Division  of  Candia,  of  about  6,000  men,  furnished 
by  the  1st,  2nd,  and  5th  Corps. 

6.  The  Division  of  Nedjed,  of  about  6, 000  men,  furnished 
by  the  6tli  Corps. 

The    first    two  commands  are  at  present    necessarily 


273 


TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 


merged  in  tlie  armies  wliich  are  engaged  in  the  military 
occupation  for  quelling  rebellion. 

The  Central  Commission  of  Redifs  is  at  Constantinople, 
and  directs  and  controls  the  sub-commissioner. 

The  Control.,  Commissariat.,  and  Paymaster^  s  Depart- 
ments are  centralized  at  Constantinople,  which  is  the  chief 
depot  for  military  stores,  and  is  under  the  control  of  the 
Grand  Military  Council.  The  flour  for  the  troops  is  not 
purchased,  but  is  made  from  the  wheat,  etc.,  received  for 
the  Government  tithes,  which  should  effect  a  great  saving. 
But  there  exists  much  corruption  in  this,  as  in  all  other 
branches  of  administration,  and  I  have  heard  of  a  case  of 
the  tithe  wheat  from  Candia  being  sent  to  a  town  in  the 
interior  of  Macedonia,  to  be  ground  into  flour  by  contract. 
The  arrangement  was,  of  course,  the  result  of  hacksMsTi, 
and  I  was  told  the  Government  lost  £4,000  by  this  one 
transaction. 

The  rations  of  the  troops  are  good,  and  generally  regu- 
larly served  out.  It  is  composed  of  bread  960  grammes, 
meat  256  grammes,  vegetables  256  grammes,  butter  4 
grammes,  salt  1  gramme.  For  each  man  the  company 
receives  250  grammes  of  wood,  and  3  grammes  of  oil. 

The  rations  of  forage  are  : — Barley,  3*840  kilogrammes  ; 
hay,  3-840  ;   straw,  1-280. 

Officers  receive  a  certain  number  of  rations  according 
to  their  rank,  and  in  most  cases  make  money  by  selling 
them.  The  following  is  a  list  of  pay  and  rations  of  officers 
and  men : — 

Piasters* 
per  month. 

Field-Marshal 25,000 

General  of  Division 8,333 

"         "    Brigade 5,000 

Colonel 2,500 

Lieut.  -Colonel 1, 633 

Major 1,250 

Adjutant 625 

Captain 350 

*  A  piaster  =  2d.  nearly, 


Rations            Forage  rations 
per  day.                per  day. 

...128     .... 

64 

...     64     ... 

20 

...     32     ... 

12 

...     12     ... 

.       8 

...       8     ... 

3 

6     ... 

.       2 

...       4     ... 

1 

...       2     ... 

0 

Y- 

TURRETS  ARMY  AND  NA  VT. 


273 


Lieutenant , 

Sub-Lieut.    1st   Class, 
"  2nd     " 

Sergeant-Major 

Sergeant 

Corporal 

Private 


Piasters 
per  month. 

250 
230 
210 
50 
35 
30 
25 


Rations 
per  day 

1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 


Fora; 


ge  rations 
per  day. 

0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 


The  pay  of  tlie  privates  is  generally  in  arrear,  sometimes 
as  much  as  two  years  ! 

This  organization  of  the  Turkish  army  was  commenced 
by  Riza  Pasha,  in  1843,  and  completed  by  Hussein  Avni 
Pasha,  in  1869  ;  and  the  assassination  of  that  general,  by 
which  his  military  knowledge  was  lost,  has  been  a  great 
blow  to  the  country  in  its  present  difficulties.  It  will  be 
seen  that  the  system  of  organization  has  mnch  to  recom- 
mend it,  but  like  all  other  branches  of  Turkish  service, 
it  is  corruptly  and  imperfectly  carried  out. 

We  now  come  to  the  fifth  part  of  the  mental  composi- 
tion of  an  army — 

The  Quality  of  the  Material  of  War. 

This  is  certainly  good.  The  rifles  at  present  in  the 
hands  of  the  troops  are  Sniders,  but  they  are  being  rapidly 
changed  for  Martini-Henries.  The  cavah-y  are  mostly 
armed  with  Winchester  and  Remington  repeating-rifles. 
The  field-guns  are  mostly  steel  Krupps,  on  the  Prussian 
system.  The  forts  in  the  Dardanelles  are  being  armed 
with  heavy  Armstrong  guns,  bnt  are  as  yet  in  an  imper- 
fect state. 

The  Physical  Compositiojst  of  an  army. 

1.  TJie  Strength  and  Endurance  of  Men  and  Officers. 

In  tliis  respect  the  Turkish  army  is  superlatively  good 
as  regards  the  men,  bnt  not  so  as  regards  officers.  ,  The 
Turk  may  safely  be  said  to  be  the  finest  material  for  a 
soldier  that  is  to  be  found  in  any  part  of  the  world.  He 
is  strong,  hardy,  patient,  brave,  intelligent,  obedient,  and 
sober,  and  becomes  easily  attached  to  his  officers.  It  is 
the  fashion  to  say  that  the  Turk  fights  bravely  behind 
18 


274  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

ramparts,  but  will  not  stand  in  the  open  field.  This  is  a 
most  erroneous  idea,  and  a  want  of  appreciation  of  canse 
and  effect.  The  reason  that  the  Tiirk  fights  so  well  be- 
hind a  rampart  consists  in  his  being  then  in  a  position, 
which  is  independent  of  the  ignorance  and  faults  of  his 
officers.  He  is  thus  able  to  develop  his  natural  bravery, 
and  being,  comparatively  speaking,  his  own  master,  he 
fights  to  the  death.  In  the  open  field  the  fact  of  his  some- 
times running  away  is  caused  by  the  faults  of  his  officers. 
No  troops  in  the  world  will  stand  in  the  open  field,  unless 
they  have  confidence  in  their  officers. 

2.  Strength  and  Endurance  of  Horses. 

The  horses  in  Turkey  are  very  small,  but  well  bred,  and 
exceedingly  hardy.  They  are  unfitted  for  artillery,  but 
are  serviceable  for  light  cavalry  and  outpost  work.  The 
great  bulk  of  the  traffic  of  the  country  is  performed  by 
pack-animals. 

3.  Tlie  Magnitude  of  the  Source  from  which  Men  and 
Horses  are  drawn. 

The  Mussulman  population,  from  which  the  recruits  for 
the  army  are  dravni,  may  be  put  down  at  about  16,000,- 
000,  and  since  35,000  conscripts  are  supposed  to  be  drawn 
every  year,  it  would  give  about  1  in  450  of  the  Mussul- 
man population  as  drawn  for  the  army  annually.  But  as 
the  recruiting  for  each  corps  is  confined  to  the  military 
districts,  some  of  which  are  populated  by  a  large  majority 
of  Christians,  the  drain  on  the  Mussulman  population  in 
many  cases  becomes  very  severe.  This  has  received  the 
attention  of  the  authorities,  and  I  believe  a  new  organiza- 
tion for  recruiting  is  in  progress.  Considering  the  extent 
of  the  Turkish  Empire,  the  source  of  supply  for  men  is 
evidently  extremely  small,  and  unless  use  is  made  of  the 
Christian  population,  it  is  next  to  impossible  for  Tur- 
key to  compete  against  a  first-rate  European  power  in  a 
lengthened  campaign. 

The  supply  of  horses,  such  as  they  are,  is  very  great, 
in  consequence  of  the  traffic  of  the  country  being  done  by 
pack-animals. 


TURKETS  ARMY  AND  NA  YY.  275 

Every  fann  or  village,  however  small,  can  supply  a  few 
pack-animals,  and  tliis  must  greatly  facilitate  tlie  means 
of  supply.  The  neighborhood  of  Hungary  and  Transyl- 
vania affords  a  fertile  source  for  the  supply  of  the  larger 
breeds  of  horses,  in  time  of  peace,  but  this  supply  would 
be  cut  off  by  a  war  on  the  Danube  frontier. 

Turkey  and  Asia  Minor  are  admirably  suited  for  Gov- 
ernment horse-breeding  establishments,  but  the  corrup- 
tion in  all  branches  of  administration  is  so  great  that  their 
creation  could  not  be  advised. 

4.  The  Quantity  of  the  Material  of  War. 

In  the  Turkish  army  this  is  in  a  comparatively  satisfac- 
tory state.  There  should  be  by  this  time  600,000  Martini- 
Henry  rifles  in  store,  and  a  like  number  of  Sniders  in  the 
hands  of  the  troops.  In  1875  there  were  80,000,000  of 
Snider  cartridges  in  store,  and  orders  were  given  more 
than  twelve  months  ago  for  very  large  quantities  of  Mar- 
tini-Henry ammunition.  There  is  a  fair  stock  of  field- 
guns  and  ammunition,  and  the  Government  possesses  50,- 
000  repeating-carbines  on  the  Winchester  system,  besides 
large  quantities  of  Remingtons. 

Pontoon  and  field-telegraph  trains  there  are  none,  which 
is  a  grave  defect. 

On  the  whole,  however,  the  quantity  of  the  material  of 
war  may  be  said  to  be  fairly  good. 

5.  T7ie  Means  of  Supply. 

In  consequence  of  the  financial  difficulties  of  Turkey, 
the  possibility  of  keeping  up  the  supply  of  the  army  is 
most  seriously  endangered.  Other^vise,  the  geographical 
position  of  the  country,  and  the  large  number  of  pack- 
animals  and  bullock-wagons  that  exist,  tend  to  facilitate 
the  supply  of  an  army  in  the  field. 

Turkey  is  especially  a  grain  and  forage-prodncing  coun- 
try, and  depots  or  intrenched  camps  would  draw  their 
provisions  from  neighboring  districts.  With  proper  care, 
water  can  be  found  almost  everywhere  in  Turkey  in 
Europe,  and  on  the  plains  you  have  only  to  dig  a  few  feet 
thi^ough  the  soft  alluvial  soil,  to  meet  with  a  fair  supply. 


276  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

In  the  rainy  season  tlie  means  of  communication  become 
so  bad,  by  reason  of  the  deep  mud  and  sticky  nature  of 
the  soil,  that  the  difficulties  of  supply  are  almost  insuper- 
able, and  must  seriously  endanger  any  large  army  that 
attempts  a  long  march  between  the  months  of  November 
and  May. 

We  have  now  completed  the  examination  of  the  mental 
and  physical  components  of  the  Turkish  army,  and  the 
impression  left  on  the  mind  after  having  done  so,  is  that 
they  are  theoretically  good,  but  practically  bad ;  never- 
theless, there  is  sufficient  material  in  both  parts  to  form 
a  valuable  and  efficient  army,  if  time  and  a  few  active  and 
callable  heads  could  be  produced.  Turkey  wants  another 
Omer  Pasha.  The  great  and  grave  defects  are — a  scarcity 
of  good  officers,  a  corrupt  administration,  and  financial 
difficulties.  Moreover,  there  is  a  great  amount  of  Jealousy 
existing  among  the  officers  of  the  higher  grades — so  much 
so,  that  one  will  frequently  work  to  thwart  the  other, 
irrespective  of  the  interests  of  the  public  service  ;  and  to 
such  an  extent  does  this  exist  that  it  would  require  a  per- 
fect Marlborough  to  overcome  it. 

There  is  another  branch  of  Turkish  armament  which 
must  be  intimately  connected  with  all  military  manoeuvres, 
and  that  is 

The  Turkish  Navy. 

Turkey  now  ranks  as  the  third  naval  Power  in  Europe, 
and  under  the  able  administration  of  the  English  admiral, 
Hobart  Pasha  (who  is  Inspector-General  of  the  Ottoman 
Navy),  it  is  hoped  that  when  called  upon  for  active  ser- 
vice, the  Turkish  navy  will  revive  the  ancient  glory  of  her 
old  marine  forces,  that  won  such  renown  under  the  famous 
Admiral  Barbarossa. 

The  Turkish  ironclads  are  some  of  the  finest  vessels 
afloat,  and  were  built,  some  by  Mr.  Samuda,  and  others 
by  the  Thames  Ironwork  Shipbuilding  Company,  cit  Black- 
wall,  many  of  them  from  the  designs  of  Ahmed  Pasha, 
chief  constructor  of  the  Ottoman  navy. 


TURKETS  ARMY  AND  NA  V7. 


277 


There  are  twenty-one  armor-clads  in  all,  including  five 
gunboats,  and  besides  these  there  are  of  wooden  vessels, 
five  magnificent  large  steam-frigates,  equal  to  any  of  tlie 
class  in  tlie  English  navy,  ten  steam  corvettes,  twenty-six 
steam  transports,  thirty-five  small  war-steamers,  besides 
twenty-four  small  sailing-vessels,  brigs,  etc. 

The  fleet  is  manned  by  28,482  excellent  sailors,  and 
3,600  marines  ;  but  the  officers  have  not  sufficient  training 
to  make  them  efficient. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  Ironclad  ISTavy  : — 


Weight 

Horse 

Name  of  Ship. 

Description. 

No.  of  Guns. 

of  Shot, 
lbs. 

Power. 

Mesondive .... 

Steam  Frigate ...  12 

....    400) 

3 

...   150  ■ 

1,250 

6 

...     20. 

Mendouhize. . . 

(( 

As  above 

(( 

It 

Azizieh 

C( 

...15 

...  150) 
....  300) 

1 

900 

Orkaniyeh 

et 

...15 
1 

...   150) 
...  300) 

900 

Osmanieh  .... 

(( 

(t 

it 

tt 

Mahmoudieh. . . 

<( 

(( 

t( 

tt 

Athar-Teyfik  . . 

<( 

...     8 

....  250 

700 

Fethi  Boulend 

Corvette  . . . 

...     4 

....  300 

500 

Avni  lllali .... 

(i 

...     4 

....  250 

400 

Muin  Zaffer  . . . 

(( 

tt 

ti 

tt 

Astar  Shefket. 

(( 

...     1 
...     4 

...  250) 
....   120) 

400 

Neyim  Shefket 

(( 

(( 

tt 

tt 

Idjla-Lieh  .... 

<e 

et 

tt 

It 

Luf  t-Gehl 

t( 

...     2 

...   150) 

1 

...     40  ^ 

200 

1 

...     32 ) 

Hufy  Rahman 

ce 

tt 

(( 

It 

Fethi  Islam . . . 

Gunboat . . . 

2-9  in.  bore 

— 

150 

Beksor  Selim. . 

(( 

tt 

— 

le 

Semeudirah . . . 

i( 

tt 

— 

tt 

Islikodrali 

it 

tt 

— 

tt 

Boukoritcha  . . 

ee 

(C 

— . 

tt 

278  TURRET  m  EUROPE. 

Another  vessel  of  the  class  of  the  Mesondroe  (and  mncb 
like  our  new  iron-clad  Alexandra)  has  lately  been  added- 
This  class  are  of  9,000  tons,  332  feet  long,  with  59  feet 
beam,  each  carrying  twelve  18-ton  guns.  Their  armor  is 
ten  inches,  and  in  some  places  twelve  inches  thick. 

Another  very  serviceable  class  is  that  represented  by 
the  A'Gni  Illah  and  Muin  Zaffer,  of  1,400  tons,  with  an 
armament  of  four  12-ton  guns  and  a  right  ahead  and  astern 
fire.  The  armor  averages  only  five  and  a  half  inches,  but 
they  are  said  to  have  greater  speed  than  any  vessels  afloat. 

This  is  a  very  formidable  naval  force,  and  the  possi- 
bility of  its  falling  into  the  hands  of  Russia  is  worth  con- 
sidering, in  which  case  it  would  make  her  superior  to 
England  as  a  naval  power. 

At  present  the  Turkish  navy  is  so  vastly  superior  to 
that  of  Russia  in  the  Black  Sea  that  it  gives  Turkey  com- 
plete command  by  water,  and  in  event  of  war  she  can  at 
once  blockade  all  the  Russian  Black  Sea  ports,  and  stop 
her  trade  in  that  quarter. 

The  term  of  service  in  the  Ottoman  navy  is  eight  years, 
and  there  are  many  Christian  Greeks  among  the  sailors. 
Officers  have  a  special  school  of  instruction  at  Khalki,  one 
of  the  Prince's  Islands.  There  is  also  a  three-decker  at 
Constantinople,  and  another  at  Ismid,  for  gunnery  in- 
struction on  the  English  system. 


CHAPTER  XV. 

TURKEY  AS  A  MILITAEY  POWER. 

Ancient  Organization  of  the  Turkist  Army — Strategical  Bases  of  the  Russian 
and  Turkish  Armies — Turkish  Fortresses — Passes  of.  the  Balkan — Roads 
of  Communication — Plan  of  Defense  for  Turkey — Blockade  of  Russian 
Ports. 

TTF  the  strength  of  the  Ottoman  army  were  proportionate 
-■-  to  that  of  her  navy,  she  would  have  no  need  of  an  ally 
against  the  great  power  of  Russia.  In  former  ages  the 
greatest  care  and  attention  were  paid  to  the  most  minute 
details  of  the  army,  and  a  long  account  of  the  Ottoman 
forces  is  given  by  the  Greek  Chalcondylas,  who  lived  in 
the  reign  of  Mourad  II.,  a.d.  1421-51.  The  greatest  care 
was  bestowed  upon  the  then  new  arm  of  artillery.  The 
science  and  practice  of  military  engineering  received  spe- 
cial attention.  Military  trains  were  organized,  and  prac- 
ticed until  they  almost  arrived  at  perfection ;  a  special 
corps  was  formed  for  keeping  roads  in  good  order ;  the 
commissariat  department,  and,  indeed,  the  whole  army, 
was  like — what  every  army  should  be — a  great  machine, 
which  only  wanted  the  pull  of  a  lever  to  set  it  aU  in  smooth 
and  easy  motion. 

In  those  days  the  Turks  organized  both  theoretically 
and  practically,  but  now  they  omit  the  latter  important 
element  in  efficiency. 

The  political  aspect  of  Turkish  affairs  during  the  pres- 
ent crisis  (1877)  is  such  that  any  moment  may  see  her  at 
war,  single-handed,  against  the  vast  power  of  Russia,  and 
it  ^vill  be  interesting  to  review  the  position  and  chances  of 
both  parties  in  the  contest  which  may,  and  probably  will, 
sooner  or  later,  take  place.     To  guide  our  judgment  we 

279 


280  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

have  the  experience  of  previous  campaigns  between  the 
combatants ;  but  there  is  one  element  of  force  on  the 
Turkish  side  in  the  present  day  which  she  did  not  possess 
in  her  fonner  single-handed  campaigns,  and  that  is  her 
naval  supremacy.  The  command  of  the  Black  Sea  is  of 
paramount  importance  to  either  side,  but  more  especially 
to  Turkey,  as  the  invaded  i;)ower.  The  last  single-handed 
campaign  was  that  of  1828-29,  but  since  that  date  railways 
and  telegraphs  have  threaded  their  way,  like  a  net-work, 
over  most  parts  of  Europe,  and  facilitated  both  strategical 
and  tactical  movements.  But  there  is  a  zone  between  the 
two  combatants  devoid  of  railways,  and  this  very  zone 
will  be  the  theater  of  war  at  the  commencement  of  the 
campaign.  As  soon,  therefore,  as  the  contending  parties 
step  into  it  they  will  be  liable  to  the  conditions  of  war 
which  attended  their  last  single-handed  campaign,  in 
1828-29.  Outside  this  zone  to  the  north — that  is,  the  left 
bank  of  the  Danube — the  gain  by  the  introduction  of  rail- 
ways is  greatly  to  the  advantage  of  Russia,  as  it  gives  her 
the  power  of  maintaining  and  supplying  her  base,  at  all 
seasons,  and  of  rapidly  concentrating  her  vast  resources, 
through  those  great  and  marshy  plains  which  formerly 
proved  so  destructive  to  her  armies. 

To  the  south  of  the  zone — that  is,  the  southern  line  of 
the  Balkan — Turkey  also  possesses,  in  a  smaller  degree, 
but  still  an  important  one,  the  advantage  of  railways,  and 
they  are  admirably  adapted  for  suj^iDlying  an  army  in  po- 
sition near  Adrianople,  and,  indeed,  anywhere  south  of 
the  Balkan. 

A  line  goes  from  Dediagatch,  in  the  ^gean  Sea,  to 
Adrianople,  by  which  supplies  and  men  could  be  sent ; 
another  from  Constantinople  to  Adrianople ;  and  this 
again  is  extended  along  the  plains  of  Philippopolis  as  far 
as  Bellova,  the  whole  length  of,  and  parallel  to,  the  great 
range  of  the  Balkan.  From  Harmanly,  between  Adriano- 
ple and  Pliilippoi^olis,  a  branch  line  runs  north  to  Yeni 
Zaghra  and  Yanboli,  a  town  on  the  Tundja  river,  and 
almost  at  the  foot  of  the  Balkan.     Taking,  then,  the  first 


FORTRESSES.  281 

base  of  tlie  Turkish  army,  witli  its  right  at  Burgas,  on  the 
Black  Sea,  and  its  left  at  Tatar  Bazardjik,  beyond  Philip- 
popolis,  it  would  lie  very  nearly  the  whole  distance  along 
a  line  of  railway  ;  biit,  unfortunately,  the  rolling-stock  is 
not  sufficient  for  the  supply  of  a  large  army. 

Let  us  now  glance  at  the  nature  of  the  country  which 
would  be  the  theater  of  war.  The  leading  features  for 
consideration  are  the  fortresses,  the  Balkan  passes,  and 
the  roads  of  communication. 

Of  the  fortresses  of  the  Danube  that  have,  in  former 
wars,  played  such  an  important  i^art  in  the  defense  of 
Turkey  against  Russia,  the  only  one  of  any  importance 
in  the  present  day  is  SUistria,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Danube,  and  on  the  edge  of  the  long,  winding,  and  nar- 
row delta  which  that  river  forms  in  its  way  to  the  sea. 
Along  the  whole  line  of  the  Danube,  from  Widin  to 
Brailow,  the  right  bank  commands  the  left,  and  so  far 
would  give  the  Turkish  army  the  advantage,  if  it  had  a 
sufficient  force  to  defend  the  passages  of  the  river. 

So  little  has  been  done  to  strengthen  the  defenses  of 
Silistria,  that  it  would  be  quite  unable  to  stand  against 
the  artillery  of  the  present  day,  which  the  Russians  could 
bring  against  it.  JSTeighboring  hills,  within  400  yards, 
command  the  town,  and  they  are  not  strengthened  in  any 
way  that  could  stand  a  siege.  Indeed,  we  may  pass  over 
the  line  of  the  Danube,  as  the  forces  of  the  Russians  are 
so  superior  in  number  to  those  of  the  Turks,  that  it  would 
be  impossible  for  the  latter  to  prevent  a  passage ;  and 
even  if  an  attempt  were  made  to  defend  Silistria,  it  could 
be  masked,  and  the  Russian  forces  might  safely  march 
on. 

It  is  true  that  the  Turks  have  numerous  gunboats  on 
the  Danube,  but  that  advantage  can  in  these  days  be 
neutralized  by  the  employment  of  torpedoes.  In  their 
numerous  campaigns  against  Turkey,  the  Russians  have, 
under  far  less  favorable  circumstances  than  they  enjoy  at 
present,  always  effected  the  passage  of  the  Danube ;  we 
may  therefore  assume  that  they  will  do  so  in  the  next  war. 


282  TURKEY  m  EUROPE. 

The  two  fortresses  wMch  next  call  for  attention  are  tliose 
of  Varna  and  Sliumla. 

We  have  two  of  the  best  authorities  on  the  importance 
of  Varna  as  a  strategical  position  north  of  the  Balkan — 
viz.,  Von  Moltke  and  Sir  John  Burgoyne — and  both  agree 
on  its  value,  to  the  Power  which  has  possession  of  the 
sea;  but  when  that  Power  becomes  the  defensive  one — 
viz.,  Turkey — the  place  as  a  defensive  position  rises  not 
to  the  second,  but  the  first  importance. 

The  town  contains  about  6,000  houses  and  30,000  inhabit- 
ants, and  occupies  a  spreading  valley  at  the  head  of  Lake 
Devna,  having  the  shape  of  a  truncated  pyramid,  the  base 
of  which  is  toward  the  interior,  with  its  apex  on  the  Black 
Sea ;  the  third  side  faces  the  north,  and  the  fourth  is 
washed  partly  by  the  anchorage  and  partly  by  the  river 
Devna,  which  flows  into  the  Bay  of  Varna  (on  the  north 
side  of  which  lies  the  town),  which,  from  the  northern  horn 
to  its  southern  extremity  at  Galata  Bumu,  is  about  4,000 
yards  broad,  and  it  runs  into  the  land  for  about  3,000 
yards.  The  harbor  is  completely  exposed  to  the  south- 
east, and  is  commanded  by  the  heights.  The  town  is 
nearly  three  miles  in  circumference  ;  and  inside  the  works 
the  ground  rises  to  some  height,  both  at  the  western  and 
eastern  quarters,  and  slopes  toward  the  sea. 

To  the  southwest  the  nearest  heights  are  about  3,000 
paces  distant,  and  about  1,000  feet  in  height ;  *  these, 
therefore,  command  the  town,  but  they  could  in  them- 
selves be  defended  by  the  erection  of  powerful  outworks. 
In  the  present  day,  therefore,  the  only  hope  of  holding 
the  town,  consists  in  the  strength  of  detached  outworks 
for  the  formation  of  an  intrenched  camp.  The  place  is 
well  supplied  with  water.  The  Turks  are  now  busy  in 
strengthening  the  outworks  ;  but  it  is  far  from  being  in  a 
position  to  withstand  an  attack.  But  with  energy,  com- 
bined \\ith  the  usual  skill  of  the  Turks  in  constructing 
defensive  positions,  it  might  yet  in  two  months'  time  be 
made  an  extremely  strong  intrenched  camp. 

*  Von  Moltke  and  Cliesney. 


FORTRESSES.  283 

The  next  fortress  is  a  very  favorite  one  with  tlie  Turks, 
as  it  has  stood  them  in  good  stead  in  their  former  cam- 
paigns, viz.,  that  of  Shnmla.  "The  town  occupies  a  deep 
mountain  basin,  formed  by  two  abutments  of  the  Balkan, 
which  project  north-eastward  from  that  chain,  nearly  in 
the  foim  of  a  horse-shoe,  the  heels  of  the  extremities  of 
which  are  toward  the  exterior,  where,  however,  they  are 
connected  with  a  low  range  of  hills  running  across  the 
space.  The  road  from  Yarna,  by  Pravadi,  and  those  from 
Silistria,  "Widdin,  and  other  passages  of  the  Danube,  con- 
verge u^Don  the  side  of  the  town.  The  rest  of  the  contour 
of  this  position  is  well  protected  by  the  rocky  sides  of  an 
almost  inaccessible  chain  of  hills,  covered  with  brush- 
wood, and  rising  in  places  to  600  feet  or  more."  *  There 
are  about  45,000  inhabitants  in  the  town  of  Shumla, 
chiefly  Mussulmans.  Tlie  most  important  defensive  posi- 
tions are  the  heights  of  Strandja,  about  2,000  paces  to 
the  north,  and  those  toward  Tschengell,  about  1,500 
paces  to  the  south ;  they  are  of  great  natural  strength, 
and  I  believe  are  now  being  powerfully  fortified  by  the 
Turks.  The  fortified  position  of  this  elevated  plateau 
which  nearly  surrounds  Shumla,  has  a  length  of  from 
five  to  six  miles,  which,  from  the  peculiar  nature  of  the 
country,  is  easily  capable  of  defense,  while  any  attack 
upon  the  only  open  side  of  the  town  would  be  exposed  to 
the  fire  from  the  heights,  and  would,  consequently,  be 
hopeless.  It  would,  therefore,  require  a  large  investing 
army  to  mask  the  place,  and  they  would  have  to  establish 
themselves  in  a  long  chain  of  forts ;  otherwise,  from  the 
nature  of  the  country,  they  would  be  open  to  successful 
attacks  from  the  Turks.  All  the  valleys  leading  up  to 
this  great  plateau  have  been  fortified,  and  it  is  unques- 
tionable that  two  months'  work  upon  the  place  would 
make  it  formidable  in  the  extreme.  If  it  had  a  garrison 
of  40,000  men,  it  would  occupy  70,000  of  the  enemy's 
troops  to  mask  it.  But  it  must  be  dependent  upon  itself 
for  supplies,  as  by  the  passes  leading  to  the  Balkan  it  can 

*  Chesnej. 


284  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

be  turned  on  tlie  right,  by  the  road  wHcli  leads  from 
Eustcliuk,  by  Eski  Dschumna  and  Eski  Stamboul  upon 
Tsclialikawak— and  upon  the  left  by  that  from  Silistria, 
passing  by  Bulanlik,  Marasck,  and  Smadowa — and  all 
communication  vdtk  the  place  could  be  cut  off.  The  na- 
ture of  the  surrounding  country  is  such  that  it  is  pecu- 
liarly favorable  for  the  employment  of  the  irregular 
troops,  formed  of  Albanians,  Circassians,  etc.,  etc.,  on 
which  Turkey  would  have  to  rest  a  large  part  of  her  de- 
fense. 

Tirnova,  situated  about  fifty  miles  from  the  Danube, 
at  nearly  equal  distances  from  Mcopolis,  Sistova,  and 
Rustchuk,  might  be  made  a  very  strong  position,  on 
account  of  its  great  natural  advantages,  but  it  could  not 
be  taken  into  consideration  in  any  present  defense,  as 
nothing  has  been  done  to  strengthen  the  place,  and  it  is 
too  near  the  Danube  to  afford  time  to  do  so,  in  the  pres- 
ence of  an  approaching  enemy.  The  river  Jantra  flows 
in  a  peculiar  way  through  steep  precipices  of  basaltic 
rock,  and  nearly  surrounds  the  citadel  of  the  town,  which 
occupies  a  commanding  position  1,000  feet  in  height. 
If  the  nne  of  the  Balkan  were  assumed  to  be  a  defensive 
fortress,  Shumla  would  be  the  position  for  an  outwork 
on  the  right  defense,  and  Tirnova  on  the  left.  There  are 
no  other  fortresses  between  Shumla  and  Constantinople. 

The  Passes  of  the  Balkan: — 

There  are  six  routes  given  as  parts  of  the  Balkan  which 
are  passable  for  an  army ;  but  in  reality  that  number 
may  be  more  than  doubled,  as  the  nature  of  the  moun- 
tains is  such,  that  there  are  many  routes  which,  although 
only  tracks  at  present,  could  without  much  difficulty  be 
made  passable  even  for  artillery ;  but  these  routes  lie 
chiefly  on  the  western  half  of  the  Balkan. 

The  highest  part  of  the  range,  said  to  be  4,400  feet 
above  the  sea — but  I  should  have  judged  it  to  be  more 
— is  beyond  Kezanlik.  The  mountains  near  the  Black  Sea 
are  only  fi'om  two  to  three  thousand  feet  in  height.    The 


PASSES  OF  TEE  BALKAN.  285 

general  character  of  th.e  country  on  the  lieiglits  is  open 
pasture,  on  "hog-backs,  "  falling  into  steep-sided  valleys 
interspersed  with  forests,  with,  in  parts,  much  rocky  and 
precipitous  ground.  As  the  descent  is  made,  thick  scrub 
is  generally  met. 

From  Kete,  or  Kasan,  to  the  west,  numerous  great 
spurs,  forming  "hog-backs,"  with  steep  sides,  run  out 
perpendicularly  to  the  north,  until  they  break  up  into 
the  lower  foot-hills,  and  blend  into  the  roUing  plains  of 
the  Danube.  To  the  south  similar  spurs  run  out,  but 
they  are  much  shorter,  and  end  abruptly. 

From  Kasan,  to  the  East,  it  is  different.  The  Balkan 
there  divides  itself  into  almost  parallel  mountain-chains, 
with  a  tendency  to  radiate  to  the  north-east,  and  which 
stretch  away  in  that  direction,  forming  valleys  between 
them,  until  the  northern  feeler  breaks  into  the  rough 
and  almost  isolated  mountains  about  Shumla ;  while 
the  southern  line,  or  continuation  of  the  main  Balkan, 
touches  the  sea  at  Cape  Emineh.  This  makes  the  dis- 
trict of  Kasan  (where  no  less  than  six  roads  meet),  in 
the  midst  of  the  high  mountains,  a  very  important 
strategical  position,  as  it  commands  many  of  the  valleys 
to  the  north  and  routes  to  the  south.  There  is  another 
very  important  feature  to  be  noticed,  and  one  which  is 
but  imperfectly  shown  in  aU  the  maps  which  exist,  and 
that  is  the  very  marked  character  of  the  upper  and  ex- 
tensive valley  of  the  Tundja,  starting  from  Tekke  on 
the  west,  untU  it  arrives  at  Tanboli  on  the  east,  a 
distance  of  about  100  mUes.*  The  mountains  on  each 
side  enter  abruptly  into  this  plain,  which  varies  from 
six  to  two  miles  broad,  is  very  fertile,  runs  parallel 
with  the  Balkan,  and  has  a  decided  range  called  the  Little 
Balkan  on  its  southern  side.  The  latter  range  is,  generally 
speaking,  covered  with  a  thick  oak-scrub,  and  would 
offer  serious  difficulties  to  the  passage  of  an  army.  The 
pass    from  Kezanlik,   which  lies  in   the  center  of   the 

*  I  must  refer  the  reader  to  "feiepert's  excellent  map  of  Turkey,  as  the 
one  in  tMs  book  does  not  aspire  to  perfect  accuracy. 


236  TURRET  IN  EUROPE. 

valley,  to  Eski  Zaghra  on  the  south  of  the  range,  might 
easily  be  defended  against  a  greatly  superior  force.  The 
character  of  the  hills  is  that  of  steep  and  intricate 
defiles,  covered  with  brushwood.  The  strategical  view 
of  the  country  south  of  the  Balkan  is  this— that  an  army, 
marching  from  the  direction  of  Sofia  on  Constantinople, 
must  pass  by  Adrianople,  and  to  get  there  must  either 
march  by  this  valley  or  by  the  great  plain  of  Philippopo- 
lis,  or  by  both  routes  ;  there  are  no  others. 

One  of  the  easiest  passages  for  an  army  over  the  Great 
Balkan — and  one  that  10,000  men  might  make  passable 
for  artillery  in  a  week,  although  the  road  is  now  little 
more  than  a  track — is  that  from  Lovtcha  on  the  north,  to 
Tekke  on  the  south,  by  Troyan. 

From  Lovtcha  to  Timova,  by  Selvi,  there  is  (or  was  in 
1874)  an  admirable  military  road,  equal  to  any  in  Europe, 
and  with  telegraph  the  whole  way.  From  Lovtcha  to 
Troyan,  an  indifferent  road  passes  through  beautiful  fer- 
tile valleys,  that  offer  no  difficulties  to  the  advance  of  an 
enemy.  About  five  mUes  from  Troyan  the  ascent  of  the 
Balkan  commences  up  one  of  the  long  spurs  which  run 
at  right  angles  to  that  range.  For  about  a  mile  and  a 
half,  the  path  ascends  a  steep  grassy  hill,  interspersed 
with  wood,  and  then  emerges  on  to  the  "hog's-back," 
which  ascends  at  a  moderate  inclination  for  about  four 
miles,  with  farms  on  the  steep  banks,  and  in  the  valleys 
on  each  side,  by  the  way.  After  passing  through  a  fine 
wood  for  about  a  quarter  of  a  mile,  it  emerges  into  open 
country,  covered  with  grass  and  stones,  and  makes  a. 
steep  ascent  for  about  half  a  mile  up  the  face  of  the 
mountain,  and  then  arrives  at  the  long  main  ridge  run- 
ning at  right  angles  to  the  spur.  There  are  several  other 
routes  up  similar  spurs,  on  either  side  of  the  one  we  have 
been  traversing,  all  of  which  arrive  upon  different  parts 
of  the  main  ridge,  so  that  an  army  occupying  one  spur 
could  easily  be  turned  by  an  enemy  passing  up  another. 
Arrived  at  the  watershed  (about  4,000  feet  above  the  sea) 
the  descent  begins  to  the  south,  and  continues  down  a 


PASSES  OF  THE  BALKAN.  287 

moderately  steep  incline  on  pasture  and  rock  for  about 
two  miles,  along  a  southern  sx^ur ;  it  then  comes  to  brush- 
wood, and  commences  a  steep  descent  down  a  zigzag  path 
for  another  two  miles,  until  it  arrives  at  Tekke,  at  the 
foot  of  the  mountains  and  on  the  verge  of  the  plain. 
From  the  top  ridge  there  are  several  paths,  which  make 
their  way  down  other  spurs,  to  other  parts  of  the  plain. 
The  nature  of  the  soil  is  that  of  loose  stones  mixed  with 
earthy  gravel,  and  it  could  with  ease  be  formed  into  a 
road  passable  for  artillery. 

I  traveled  over  another  i)ass,  from  Tekke  to  the  plains 
of  Sofia,  by  Klissura  and  Slatitza.  Just  beyond  Klissura 
there  is  a  very  strong  j)osition  for  defense,  but  it  could  be 
turned  by  riflemen  on  hills  on  either  flank,  and  although 
by  this  route  there  are  some  positions  which  would  pre- 
sent difficulties  to  the  advance  of  an  enemy,  esijecially 
between  Slatitza  and  the  plains  of  Sofia,  they  could  all  be 
turned  with  a  little  trouble. 

Of  the  passes  to  the  east  of  Lovtcha  which  are  known, 
the  first  is  that  of  the  route  from  Tirnova  to  Kezanlik,  by 
Gabrowa.  On  leaving  Gabrowa,  where  the  Jantra  is 
crossed  by  a  stone  bridge,  the  road  rises  gradually  as  far 
as  the  hill  of  Shibka,  in  the  middle  of  a  magnificent 
forest.  The  slopes  of  the  deep  valley  of  the  Jantra,  and 
of  the  Tundja,  although  steep,  could  easily  be  occupied 
by  skirmishers,  and  the  pass  might  in  that  way  be  forced. 
From  the  hill,  as  far  as  the  village  of  Shibka,  the  road  for 
about  a  mile  goes  down  a  steep  inclination,  and  then 
shows  out  the  plain  of  Kezanlik,  situated  between  the 
Great  and  Little  Balkan  ranges,  which  run  parallel  to 
one  another. 

2.  The  pass  from  Tirnova  to  Slimno,  or  Slivmia,  by 
Demirkapou : — 

This  route  traverses  the  range  at  a  great  elevation,  and 
the  only  information  I  could  get  concerning  it  was  that 
it  would  be  quite  practicable  for  infantry,  but  not  for 
cavalry. 

3.  The  pass  from  Tii*nova  to  Kasan,  by  Osman  Bazaar : — 


288  TURKEY  m  EUROPE. 

On  leaving  Osman  Bazaar  tlie  road  ascends  througli  an 
open  country,  np  to  tlie  crest  of  the  Binar  Dagli,  where  it 
passes  between  two  liigh  and  naked  peaks,  and  com- 
mences to  descend  toward  the  little  town  of  Kasan, 
ensconced  in  a  sort  of  funnel  formed  by  the  surrounding 
steep  and  rugged  mountains.  From  this  town  it  still 
descends,  through  a  narrow  defile  called  the  Iron  Gate 
(Demirkapou),  the  passage  of  which  could  only  be  forced 
with  great  sacrifice ;  but  this  defile  could  be  turned  by  a 
road  (a  bad  one,  it  is  true)  which  rises  in  a  zigzag  to  the 
right.  After  having  j)assed  this  defile,  the  road  divides 
into  three  ;  one  goes  to  Kamabat,  another  to  Dobrol,  and 
the  third  to  Sliomia.  The  number  and  depth  of  the  val- 
leys across  which  the  last  route  passes,  make  it  very  diffi- 
cult to  traverse,  on  account  of  the  numerous  ascents  and 
descents,  especially  on  the  descent  to  Sliomia,  where  the 
incline  is  very  steep. 

4.  The  pass  from  Shumla  to  Kamabat,  by  Tschalikawak 
and  Dobrol : — 

This  is  one  of  the  routes  by  which  Shumla  can  be 
turned ;  but  the  other  route  also  meets  it  at  Tschalikawak, 
which,  situated  in  the  lower  Balkans,  offers  an  excellent 
situation  for  a  camp.  Water,  forage,  and  wood  can  be 
had  in  abundance,  and  four  roads  meet  here.  From 
thence,  as  far  as  Dobrol,  there  are  numerous  difficulties  in 
the  way  of  an  advancing  army.  The  road  passes  through 
deep  ravines,  bordered  by  precipitous  rocks.  On  arriving 
at  the  head  of  these,  it  ascends  the  long  and  narrow  defile 
formed  by  the  river  Derbent,  which  flows  into  the  Deli 
Kamtchik.  This  defile  could  easily  be  defended  by  a  small 
force,  against  one  which  was  vastly  superior.  There  are 
but  few  fords  over  the  river,  and  only  one  wooden  bridge. 
The  ascent  from  here  to  the  top  is  made  up  a  rugged 
slope,  after  which  a  more  easy  descent  is  made  to  the  open 
country  about  Dobrol.  From  this  place,  as  far  as  Kama- 
bat, the  country  is  cut  up  by  a  number  of  small  streams, 
and  generally  covered  with  thick  bushes.  Near  Kamabat 
there  is  an  excellent  site  for  a  camp.    Continuing  this 


PASSES  OF  THE  BALKAN.  289 

route  further  in  the  direction  of  Adrianople,  it  meets  the 
difficult-to-force  and  easily-to-be-defended  defile  of  Buguk 
Derbend.  Moltke  says  that  after  passing  Karnabat  the 
route  offers  difficulties  to  an  advancing  aimy,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  absence  of  corn  and  forage ;  but  since  the 
time  he  was  there,  much  of  the  rich  land  has  been  culti- 
vated, and  there  is  now  a  fau'  amount  of  corn  to  be  had, 
and  in  the  spring  plenty  of  forage. 

5.  The  pass  from  Kosludscha  to  Pravadi,  and  thence  by 
Koprikoi  or  by  Jenikoi  to  Aidos  : — 

The  little  town  of  Pravadi  is  situated  in  a  defile  about 
1,000  yards  broad,  bordered  by  rocks  about  600  feet  in 
height.  It  is  traversed  by  a  river  of  the  same  name,  which 
rises  from  hills  toward  the  north,  flows  due  south  through 
the  defile,  until  it  bends  round  by  Sultanlar,  and  winds 
north-east  toward  Yama,  under  the  name  of  the  Bevno. 

In  the  center  of  the  defile  at  Pravadi  there  are  some 
bold  rocks,  which  form  a  narrow  pass  that  could  easily  be 
made  impregnable,  but  it  can  be  turned  (with  difficulty) 
on  both  the  right  and  left.  The  river,  both  at  Pravadi 
and  the  small  town  of  Kadikoi,  must  be  crossed  by  bridges, 
and  the  passage  at  the  latter  place  is  difficult.  From 
thence,  up  the  valley  of  Delidche-Dere,  three  miles  long, 
and  a  perilous  route  for  a  long  column,  no  less  than  forty 
fords  have  to  be  crossed  over  the  sinuous  river. 

Near  Gokbehuet-Arakdehe  the  rugged  rocks  close  in 
this  valley  to  a  narrow  pass,  only  fifty  yards  broad,  and 
which  could  easily  be  made  impregnable  ;  beyond  that, 
there  are  no  difficulties  as  far  as  Aidos. 

The  easier  route  for  an  invading  army  is  by  Jenikoi, 
where  the  Kamtchik  is  easUy  fordable,  even  on  foot,  dur- 
ing the  summer. 

The  right  bank  of  the  river  is  bare  about  the  town  of 
Jenikoi.  Near  Ischenga  the  road  crosses  the  DeU  Kam- 
tchik by  a  ford,  and  then  rises  suddenly,  and  at  this  place 
it  might  be  rendered  impregnable.  The  plateau  above 
Ischenga  is  a  mile  and  a  quarter  in  extent,  and  troops 
might  be  advantageously  intrenched  at  this  spot,  which 
19 


290  TURKEY  IX  EUROPE. 

offers  the  defensive  advantage  of  ground  falling  rapidly 
toward  the  Deli  Kamtchik  on  one  side,  and  the  Deli- 
dschederek  on  the  other.  On  the  neighboring  open  space 
at  Bau-amovo,  a  considerable  encampment  might  be 
formed,  and  as  a  practicable  road  leads  from  thence  to 
Yama,  a  force  concentrated  on  this  spot  could  either  de- 
bouch on  that  fortress  or  toward  Pravadi  at  pleasure. 

6.  The  pass  from  Yama  by  Derwisch  Jowann  to  Me- 
sembria  and  Burgas  : — 

Passing  through  the  marshy  country  south  of  Yama, 
this  route  crosses  the  Kamtchik  by  a  bridge  of  boats  at 
Podbaschi,  where  the  banks  are  precipitous  and  from  six 
to  twelve  feet  high.  The  marsh  is  about  5,000  paces  in 
extent,  and  there  is  some  rising  ground  suitable  for  in- 
trenchments  at  a  spot  beyond  it,  where  two  narrow  but 
passable  roads  lead  westward. 

Encountering  moderate  ascents  through  beautiful  but 
almost  impenetrable  woods,  these  routes  lead  to  Derwisch 
Jowann  and  Mesembria  (on  the  Bay  of  Burgas),  passing 
through  the  deep  valleys  of  Kip-Dereh.  The  latter  con- 
sist of  an  almost  continuous  succession  of  deiiles,  nor  are 
there  here  any  means  of  cross-communications  between 
the  various  roads  of  the  Balkan,  excepting  those  at  the 
southern  declivity  of  the  chain,  where  one  such  inter-com- 
munication leads  from  Mesembria  to  Aidos,  and  another 
from  Burgas  to  the  same  place,  from  whence  a  single  line 
is  continued  to  Kamabat  and  Sliomia. 

In  1874  there  was  a  good  military  road  from  Burgas  to 
Aidos,  but  it  is  probably  in  such  bad  repair  now,  as  to  be 
impassable  for  wheeled  carriages  in  the  rainy  season. 

The  description  of  these  Balkan  passes  is  derived  from 
personal  observation,  made  in  1874,  and  from  accounts 
written  by  Yon  Moltke  and  Chesney. 

The  ease  with  which  the  Russians  crossed  the  Balkan 
in  1829,  with  Shumla  in  theii'  rear,  and  in  possession  of 
the  Turks,  proves  that  the  difficulties  of  the  passage  are 
not  insuperable. 

The  passes  are  generally  covered  with  snow  from  No- 


ROADS.  291 

vember  to  April,  and  although  the  passage  might,  with 
great  clifBciilty,  be  made  across  the  mountains  in  the  win- 
ter, if  a  snow-storm  came  on  during  the  march,  the  army 
would  be  destroyed. 

The  roads  in  Turkey  are  for  the  most  part  merely  tracks 
made  by  the  passage  of  carts,  etc.,  over  the  same  ground ; 
but  of  late  years  large  sums  of  money  have  been  spent  by 
the  Porte  in  making  military  roads  of  communication ; 
but,  as  I  have  already  mentioned,  they  are  for  the  most 
part  useless  a  few  years  after  their  construction,  in  conse- 
quence of  not  being  repaired. 

The  principal  roads  that  have  lately  been  constructed 
are,  that  from  Salonica  to  Monastir,  still  in  very  fair 
order  ;  from  Salonica  to  Seres,  only  finished  in  small 
lengths,  here  and  there,  and  those  are  impassable  for  any 
distance,  for  want  of  repair.  All  work  on  this  road  is 
now  stopped. 

The  roads  from  Djumaa  to  Dubnitza  and  Sofia,  and 
from  Samakov  to  Dubnitza,  and  from  Samakov  to  Sofia. 
These  were  splendid  roads  in  1874,  but  were  not  finished 
for  the  whole  of  their  length.  Road  from  Philippopolis 
to  Eski  Zaghra  and  Yeni  Zaghra  to  Yanboli,  to  Karnabat 
and  Burgas,  running  the  whole  length  of  the  Balkan  ;  this 
road  was  nearly  completed  in  1874.  Road  from  Lovtcha 
by  Selvi,  Tii-nova  to  Rustchuk,  finished  in  1874,  and  in 
excellent  order  at  that  time. 

The  constant  change  of  governors  of  districts  interfered 
greatly  with  road-making.  One  governor  would  arrive  at 
a  district  and  take  great  interest  in  the  construction  of 
these  useful  highways,  and  the  work  then  progi'essed 
rapidly,  when  the  governor  was  superseded  by  a  man  who 
never  thought  or  cared  about  roads,  and  the  work  at  once 
languished.  It  is  not  an  unusual  thing  in  some  parts 
of  Turkey  to  meet  with  a  beautiful  portion  of  road  about 
a  mile  long,  and  leading  nowhere  in  particular  at  either 
end,  and  to  find  that  it  was  the  work  of  some  energetic 
pasha  who  had  reigned  perhaps  for  three  months. 

Much  has  been  done  in  the  way  of  telegraphs,  and  they 


292  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

noAv  extend  to  all  the  principal  towns  in  Turkey.  Tliis 
will  be  a  great  advantage  to  the  Turks  in  tkeii*  defensive 
position. 

In  summer  an  army  can  move  with  ease  in  most  parts 
of  the  country,  as  the  ground  becomes  hard,  and  the 
numerous  tracks  over  the  country  then  make  very  fair 
roads  ;  but  from  IN'ovember  to  May  these  tracks  are  im- 
passable for  heavy-wheeled  traffic,  and  there  would  be  the 
greatest  difficulty  and  danger  in  moving  an  army  during 
that  season.  From  March  to  June  there  would  be  ample 
forage  all  over  the  country  for  a  very  large  army,  as  at  that 
season  the  grass  springs  up  in  great  luxuriance,  and  the 
extensive  grain  crops  are  then  growing. 

Harvest  of  grain  crops  (maize  excepted)  takes  place 
generally  in  June,  and  from  that  month  to  August  grain 
would  be  procurable  in  large  quantities  almost  anywhere, 
but  not  forage,  as  the  grass  is  at  that  season  all  dried  up 
by  the  sun.  There  would,  however,  be  the  chopped 
straw,  which  is  found  everywhere,  and  makes  good  food 
for  horses.  "Very  little  grain  would  be  procurable  after 
August,  as  it  is  the  custom  of  the  inhabitants  to  sell  it  off 
as  soon  as  it  is  threshed.  The  maize  harvest  takes  place 
in  September,  and  the  dry  leaves  and  stalks  of  the  plant 
make  excellent  fodder,  which  would  be  abundant  in  some 
districts  ;  but  the  cultivation  of  maize  is  partial.  Sheep 
and  oxen  could  be  found  in  large  quantities  everywhere, 
at  all  seasons,  but  the  inhabitants  are  very  loath  to  part 
with  them. 

Fuel  would  be  very  scarce  in  most  of  the  low  districts. 
Water  is  generally  to  be  found  by  digging  a  few  feet  be- 
low the  surface  on  the  plains,  and  on  the  mountains  it  is 
abundant.  Pack-animals  for  transport  would  be  abun- 
dant everywhere,  as  each  little  farm  has  always  four  or  five 
horses  which  are  used  for  threshing  the  grain,  and  most 
of  the  traffic  of  the  country  is  carried  on  by  means  of 
pack-animals. 

One  of  the  best  defenses  which  Turkey  possesses  is  the 
unhealthy  climate  of  some  of  the  plains  during  the  autumn 


MALARIA  FEVERS.  293 

montlis,  in  consequence  of  the  malaria  fevers  whicli  are 
generated  by  the  marshes. 

The  natives  think  very  little  of  these  fevers,  but  they 
are  very  destructive  to  the  efficiency  of  an  army.  The  at- 
tacks commence  by  shivering,  then  the  hot  stage  comes 
on,  and  after  that  profuse  perspiration,  when  the  patient 
feels  as  well  as  ever  ;  but  two  or  three  days  afterward  he 
is  again  down  for  twenty-four  hours.  The  attacks  vary 
in  severity  according  to  the  constitution  of  the  patient, 
and  in  many  cases  he  is  disabled  from  all  work.  Foreign- 
ers are  much  more  subject  to  these  fevers  than  the  natives, 
and  they  have  always  proved  peculiarly  destructive  to  the 
Russian  armies.  They  are  only  prevalent  during  the 
months  of  July,  August,  and  September,  and  then  only  on 
plains ;  the  rest  of  the  year  is  very  healthy.  An  army 
moving  through  the  country  during  these  months  can 
never  be  certain  of  the  number  of  men  it  can  bring  into 
line  of  battle.  It  may  have  70,000  men  to-day,  and  only 
40,000  to-morrow,  for  while  the  hot  and  cold  stage  of  the 
fever  is  ragiag  it  completely  incapacitates  a  man  for  any 
kind  of  work.  When  traveling  through  the  country  in 
1874,  a  plan  of  defense  for  Turkey  against  the  attacks  of 
Russia  suggested  itself  to  me,  which  I  will  describe  for 
the  consideration,  and  subject  to  the  correction,  of  more 
competent  military  authorities.  It  hinges  upon  the  stra- 
tegical importance  of  the  district  about  Burgas  as  a  posi- 
tion for  a  large  intrenched  camp.  Burgas  is  on  the  Black 
Sea  coast,  about  three  hours'  steam  south  of  Yarna,  and 
is  situated  on  the  bay  of  that  name,  which  affords  excel- 
lent anchorage  and  shelter  for  a  fleet  of  any  size  in  all 
weathers.  The  town  is  on  the  southern  edge  of  the  Bal- 
kan range,  about  twenty  miles  from  Aidos,  where  the 
passes  (already  described)  debouch,  and  about  fifty  miles 
from  Yanboli,  the  terminus  of  the  railway  from  Adrian- 
ople. 

It  is  principally  celebrated  for  its  grain-exports,  and  is 
well  supplied  with  water.  To  the  south  of  the  bay  is  the 
Greek  town  of  Sisopolis,  which,  beiag  situated  on  a  long 


294  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

and  narrow  promontory,  could  easily  be  fortified ;  and 
there  is  good  anchorage  for  large  ships  close  to  the  town. 
This  is  the  place  w^hich  played  an  imiDortant  part  in  the 
campaign  of  1828-29.  In  the  neighborhood  of  Burgas, 
toward  the  Balkan  range,  there  are  excellent  sites  for  a 
large  intrenched  camp,  on  ground  which  would  be  ex- 
tremely healthy  at  all  seasons  of  the  year,  and  the  amiy 
occupying  the  camp  could  be  supplied  by  sea.  Constan- 
tinox)le  is  twelve  hours'  steam  from  Burgas. 

In  the  following  plan  of  defense,  we  must  assume  what 
would  probably  be  the  case,  viz.,  that  Turkey  has  com- 
plete command  of  the  Black  Sea.  Supposing  that  a  cam- 
I)aign  commenced  in  four  months  from  this  time  (January, 
1877),  the  forces  which  would  probably  be  arrayed  against 
each  other  in  Turkey  in  Europe,  leaving  out  those  which 
would  be  occupied  in  the  campaign  in  Asia  Minor — the 
quarter  in  Avhich  Russia  probably  intends  to  acquu-e  new 
territory  at  the  expense  of  the  Turks — would  be  as  fol- 
lows : — Russia,  considering  the  power  of  concentration  she 
now  possesses  from  the  construction  of  her  strategical  lines 
of  railway,  could  probably  employ  400,000  regular  trooi)s 
for  a  campaign  against  Turkey  in  Europe.  Of  these,  100,- 
000  men  would  probably  be  in  reserve,  100,000  men  would 
T5e  employed  in  masking  fortresses  and  keeping  up  com- 
munications ;  leaving  200,000  men — or,  say,  tlu'ee  armies 
of  70,000  men  each — to  advance  into  Turkey  ;  and  to  these 
might  be  added  30,000  Servian  and  Montenegrin  irregular 
troops.  The  plan  of  attack  can  only  be  assumed  ;  but 
looking  at  the  line  of  the  Ballvan  as  a  long  fortress,  it  is 
possible  that  the  first  Russian  army  might  unite  with  the 
Servian  forces,  and  advance  by  Sofia,  the  second  army  by 
Rustchuk  and  Tii'nova,  and  the  third  by  the  Dobrudja, 
Varna,  and  Shumla. 

The  Balkan  passed,  the  only  routes  to  Constantinople 
would  be  by  Yanboli,  along  the  valley  of  the  Tundja,  and 
along  the  plain  of  Philippopolis,  both  tending  to  Adiian- 
ople.  The  experience  of  the  campaign  of  1829  teaches  the 
number  of  troops  that  Russia  might  expect  to  be  able  to 
rely  upon  by  the  time  she  arrived  at  Adiianople.     She 


TUE  DEFENSE  OF  TURKEY.  295 

commenced,  that  campaign,  according  to  Yon  Moltke, 
with  the  insufficient  force  of  G8,000  men,  and  when  she 
arrived,  at  Adrianople,  according  to  the  same  authority, 
she  could  not  have  put  15,000  men  in  line  of  battle. 

If,  therefore,  Russia  now  commences  the  camj)aign  with 
430,000  men,  including  the  Servian  troops,  we  may  fairly 
conclude  that,  by  the  time  she  had  passed,  the  Balkan, 
she  could  employ  only  100,000  troops  south  of  that  range 
of  mountains.  And  in  this  calculation  it  must  be  remem- 
bered, that  Turkey  is  now  in  a  far  better  military  position, 
as  compared  with  Russia,  than  she  was  in  1829.  She  was 
then  even  more  disorganized  than  she  is  now,  and  prac- 
tically had  no  regular  army,  and  Russia  had  complete 
command  of  the  sea. 

In  considering  the  Turkish  forces  which  could  be  em- 
ployed in  Euroi)e  to  repel  such  an  attack  in  the  siDring, 
we  must  dismiss  all  paper-statistics ;  and,  as  far  as  I  can 
gather  from  reliable  sources,  the  Porte  could  not,  even 
with  all  the  Redifs,  employ  against  Russia  in  Europe 
more  than  100.000  regular  troops. 

To  these  may  be  added  by  great  exertions  100,000  re- 
cruits, to  be  trained  in  reserve,  and  60,000  irregular  troops, 
consisting  of  Albanians,  Circassians,  Bashi-Bazouks,  etc., 
etc.,  making  in  all — 

Eegular  Troops 100,000 

Eecruits 100,000 

Irregulars 60,000 

Total 260,000 

against  400,000  highly-trained  Russian  regular  troops  and 
30,000  iiTegulars. 

The  numerical  superiority  of  the  Russians  is  so  great 
that  the  attempt  to  fight  her  anywhere  near  her  base 
would  seem  to  be  madness.  The  only  hope  for  Turkey  is 
to  make  every  use  of  the  natural  defenses  of  the  country, 
and  to  oblige  Russia  to  fight  as  far  from  her  base  as  possi- 
ble, and  at  the  same  time  to  harass  her  communications. 

Time  is  all-important ;  for  if  the  Russians  advance  far 


296  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

into  Turkey  they  must  finish  the  campaign  before  Decem- 
ber, otherwise  they  would  have  the  greatest  difficulty  in 
feeding  the  army. 

It  would  seem,  then,  that  the  best  line  of  defense  for 
Turkey  would  be  south  of  the  Balkan,  where  she  would 
be  in  railway  communication  with  her  capital,  arsenals, 
and  the  sea,  of  which  she  would  have  the  command, 
while  the  Russian  forces  opposed  to  her  would  be  more 
than  300  miles  from  their  base,  and  would  have  the  great 
Balkan  range  lying  right  across  their  lines  of  communica- 
tion. 

Turkey  might  occupy  her  260,000  troops  on  such  a  plan 
of  defense  by  evacuating  all  fortresses  excepting  Shumla 
and  Yarna,  which  should  be  made  as  strong  as  possible. 
All  useless  mouths  that  could  be  spared  might  be  sent  away 
from  Shumla,  and  it  might  be  provisioned  for  six  months. 
Intrenched  camps  might  be  formed  at  Yarna,  at  Burgas, 
and  in  the  district  of  Adrianox)le.  Impregnable  positions, 
which  would  hold  about  500  men  each,  might  be  selected 
among  the  Balkan  passes — I  have  seen  many  that  would 
be  suitable — and  intrenched,  provisioned  for  eight  months, 
and,  in  some  cases  fortified. 

The  distribution  of  the  Turkish  forces  might  then  be  as 
follows : — 

25,000  picked  troops,  divided  into  three  divisions,  to 
watch,  and  retreat  before  the  advance  of  the  three 
Russian  armies,  harassing  them  at  every  favorable 
position. 

40,000  Albanians,  Circassians,  etc.,  including  a  few  regu- 
lar troops,  at  Shumla. 

20,000  in  the  intrenched  camp  at  Yarna. 

10,000  in  the  fortified  and  intrenched  positions  scattered 
about  the  Balkan  passes. 

75,000  in  the  intrenched  camp  at  Burgas. 

90,000  in  the  intrenched  camp  in  the  district  of  Adriano- 
ple. 

Out  of  the  75,000  men  at  Burgas,  60,000  might  be  regu- 
lar troops.    The  neighborhood  of  Burgas  would  be  an 


THE  DEFENSE  OF  TURKEY.  297 

admirable  position  for  falling  npon  the  Russian  troops  as 
they  debouched  from  the  Balkan  passes. 

If  Russia  masked  Shumla  and  Varna,  and  passed  on, 
Turkey,  being  in  possession  of  the  sea,  could  at  any  mo- 
ment throw  20,000  additional  troops  into  Varna  from  Bur- 
gas— only  three  hours'  off  by  steam — and  thus  raise  the 
forces  at  Shumla  and  Varna  to  80,000  men,  right  in  the 
line  of  the  Russian  communications.  If  Russia  laid  siege 
to  Shumla  and  Varna  before  passing  on,  it  would  be  a 
very  tedious  and  costly  undertaking,  and  it  is  very  doubt- 
ful whether  those  jDlaces  could  be  taken  in  a  single  cam- 
paign of  one  season.  When  Russia  passed  the  Balkan, 
she  could  not  advance  upon  Adrianople  without  beating 
the  army  at  Burgas,  otherwise  she  would  lay  open  her 
communications  to  its  attack. 

The  Turks  are  famous  for  their  fighting  powers  in  in- 
trenched positions,  and  would  therefore  be  acting  under 
the  most  favorable  circumstances.  Moreover,  their  armies 
would  be  in  healthy  positions  (Varna  excepted),  and 
easily  supplied  by  sea  and  rail.  As  the  containing  di- 
visions fell  back  before  the  Russian  armies  advancing 
through  the  Balkan,  they  would  come  upon  positions 
where  their  small  forces  could  act  upon  almost  equal 
terms  with  the  superior  forces  of  the  Russians,  and  could 
do  great  damage  to  their  troops ;  but  it  would  require 
clever  officers  at  the  head  of  these  divisions.  They  are, 
however,  to  be  found — notably,  Mehemet  Ali  Pasha,  a 
German  by  birth. 

It  may  be  argued  that  this  plan  of  defense  would  be 
giving  over  a  large  portion  of  the  empire  to  Russian  occu- 
pation ;  but  the  answer  is  that  Turkey,  being  in  command 
of  the  Black  Sea,  could  strangle  all  Russian  commerce  in 
those  waters  until  that  power  released  her  grij)  of  the 
Ottoman  throat. 

I  jotted  down  this  plan  of  defense  when  I  was  traveling 
over  the  country  in  1874  ;  and  now  that  the  Turkish  forces 
are  reduced  by  the  exhaustion  of  the  Servian  campaign, 
it  seems  to  me  still  more  reasonable  ;  but  that  point  I  leave 
to  the  decision  of  others. 


CHAPTEE   XYI. 

FEOM  TEOYAN  TO   SAMAKOV. 

Brigands — A  Doctor  Shot — Turkisli  Hospitality — A  Mountain  Pass — Slatitza 
— The  Disease  of  Procrastination — "  Cut-em-nps" — Tlie  Trials  of  Inter- 
pretation— A  Long  Ride — The  Great  Watershed — The  Meeting  of  the 
Mountains — Plain  of  Sofia — The  Railway — The  Rilo  Dagh — Samakov 
— The  American  Mission — Iron — Lovely  Scenery — Alarms — A  Shake- 
Down — The  Monastery  of  Rilo — Deer-Stalking — An  Accident. 

AFTER  tliis  long  digression  I  return  to  my  journey 
from  Troyan  to  Samakov. 

I  re-crossed  tlie  Balkan  by  tke  same  track  as  far  as  the 
highest  ridge,  and  then  struck  down  another  spur,  more 
to  the  west  of  the  one  I  had  ascended.  As  usual,  there 
were  reports  of  brigands  before  I  left  Troyan,  but  no  signs 
of  them.  Still,  there  was  no  doubt  that  they  really  ex- 
isted, for  only  two  days  before,  on  the  road  to  Tirnova,  a 
Greek  doctor  had  been  shot.  He  was  traveling  ^^ith  a 
friend,  and  had  ridden  ahead  on  the  high  road,  when  two 
brigands  stepped  out  of  the  neighboring  wood,  and  stop- 
ped his  way,  upon  which  he  drew  his  revolver,  fired  a 
wild  shot  at  them,  and  turned  to  gallop  back.  But  the 
brigands  had  provided  for  this  maneuver,  and  two  more 
stepped  out  to  stop  his  retreat,  and  ui)on  his  firing  at  them 
they  shot  him  dead.  Houssein  Pasha,  the  Governor  of 
Tirnova,  received  the  news  at  six  o'  clock  in  the  evening, 
and  immediately  started  off  on  a  seven  hours'  ride,  and 
succeeded  in  capturing  the  brigands,  who  were,  I  believe, 
hung. 

John  and  Pano  carried  revolvers,  and  I  gave  them  orders 
that  if  any  of  these  highwaymen  attempted  to  stop  our 
way,  they  were  to  follow  me  in  riding  straight  at  them, 
without  hesitating  for  a  moment,  and  on  no  account  to  fire 

298 


AN  EARL  Y  START.  299 

until  I  did,  but  wlien  once  tliey  began,  to  keep  it  going 
steadily  and  surely. 

I  do  not  think  that,  as  a  rule,  the  brigands  wish  to  take 
a  man' s  life,  if  they  can  help  it,  and  it  is  highly  probable 
that  if  he  dashed  through  them  at  once,  witliout  firing, 
unless  they  did,  he  might  escape. 

We  had  been  delayed  in  starting  by  difficulties  in  get- 
ting pack-horses  for  my  tents,  so  that  it  was  nearly  dark 
before  we  arrived  on  the  outskirts  of  a  large  Turkish 
village,  on  the  plain  at  the  foot  of  the  pass.  I  determined 
to  j)itch  the  tents,  and  camp  outside  the  village,  and  after 
waiting  for  about  half  an  hour  they  arrived,  and  we  set 
them  up  in  the  dark.  The  noise  of  the  Keradjees  (drivers) 
attracted  the  attention  of  the  Turks  of  the  village,  who 
came  out  to  see  the  disturbers  of  their  usually  quiet 
mountain  homes,  and  when  they  found  that  we  were 
actually  going  to  camp  close  outside  thek  village,  their 
ideas  of  hospitality  were  much  hurt. 

They  said  they  really  could  not  permit  it,  that  they 
could  give  me  a  good  and  comfortable  house,  and  would 
soon  have  food,  etc.  But  the  tents  were  up,  and  I  was 
anxious  to  be  off  by  daybreak  the  next  morning,  so  with 
many  apologies  I  refused  their  hospitable  offer.  However, 
the  good  people  insisted  on  bringing  me  all  kinds  of 
edibles,  and  refused  to  take  anything  in  pajrment.  I  was 
determined  to  get  my  men  into  training  for  an  early  start, 
as  I  had  a  long  and  uncertain  journey  before  me,  so  I 
roused  them  uj)  at  3.30  a.m.,  and  had  all  the  tents  struck, 
baggage  packed,  and  animals  started  by  4.30  a.m.  We 
followed  about  an  hour  afterward.  The  long  valley  of 
the  Tundja  here  narrows  into  a  cul  cle  sac,  and  it  is  from 
this  part  that  the  river  takes  its  source. 

There  is  what  in  Scotland  would  be  called  a  "balloch," 
which  connects  the  Great  Balkan  with  the  Karadja  Dagh 
range,  and  thus  closes  the  long  valley — through  which  we 
traveled,  by  Kezanlik — between  them.  The  town  of  Klis- 
snra  lies  a  little  way  up  this  "balloch,"  and  it  was  here 
that  I  stopped  and  met  the  hospitable  Mudu",  to  whom  I 


300  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

alluded  in  a  former  chapter.  The  difficulty  of  obtaining 
accurate  information  as  to  the  distance  to  Samakov  was 
great  and  trying.  One  man  said  it  was  twenty-eight 
hours'  ride,  another  that  it  was  sixteen,  but  no  certain 
guide  could  be  found.  All,  however,  seemed  to  agree  that 
the  route  lay  by  Slatitza,  or  Isladi,  as  it  is  generally  spelled 
in  the  maps.  This  puzzled  me,  as  in  the  large  map  I  had 
with  me  that  town  is  marked  well  north  of  the  Balkan.  I 
afterward  found  that  the  map  had  placed  the  towTi  only 
forty  miles  out  of  its  proper  position.  The  Mudir  en- 
deavored to  persuade  me  to  take  a  guard,  as  the  pass 
through  which  we  should  have  to  travel  was  infested  with 
brigands,  who  seem  to  drive  a  busy  trade  in  these  moun- 
tain regions.  I,  however,  refused  his  civil  offer,  not  wish- 
ing it  to  be  supposed  that  I  was  worth  robbing,  and  there- 
fore contented  myself  with  the  usual  zaptieh  as  a  guide, 
but  I  engaged  another  to  accompany  the  baggage,  which 
was  sent  on  ahead. 

The  scenery  here  is  very  pretty,  the  pasture  hills  are 
beautifully  wooded  in  patches  here  and  there,  and  com- 
mand a  view  of  the  rich  plain  below.  I  heard  that  there 
were  red  and  roe  deer  to  be  seen,  and  plenty  of  chamois 
on  the  higher  mountains,  besides  bears  ;  but  all  accounts 
agreed  in  Rilo  Monastir  being  the  best  district  for  such 
game,  and  I  therefore  determined  to  be  patient. 

After  rising  the  "balloch"  for  about  a  thousand  feet 
Tip  a  winding  path  we  came  to  a  wooded  pass,  and  the  zap- 
tieh requested  us  to  g^t  our  revolvers  ready,  as  it  was  a 
dangerous  place  ;  but,  I  regret  to  say,  I  cannot  offer  the 
reader  any  exciting  account  of  an  encounter  with  brig- 
ands, for  the  country  seemed  as  quiet  and  peaceful  as  a 
scene  in  Wales,  and  we  passed  on  without  meeting  a  soul. 

We  now  descended  into  a  long  grassy  valley  with  moun- 
tains on  our  right  and  wooded  hills  on  our  left,  and  de- 
scended gradually  down  a  steppe  country  until  we  reached 
a  beautiful  plain  of  rich  meadow-land,  well  irrigated,  and 
with  haystacks  such  as  might  be  seen  in  England.  Sev- 
eral Bulgarian  and  Turkish  villages  were  passed,  and  at 


PROCRASTINATION.  301 

6  T.^i.  we  arrived  at  Slatitza,  a  very  prettily  situated  town 
inliabited  by  Bulgarians,  partly  Moliammedan  and  partly 
Christian,  each  of  whom,  as  in  all  other  similar  cases, 
have  their  separate  quarter  of  the  to^Ti.  We  found  a 
good  khan ;  the  wife  of  the  Bulgarian  khanjee  was  most 
civil  and  obliging,  and  it  looked  a  clean  place.  I  saw  to 
the  horses,  and  was  then  shown  into  a  room  -^vlth  Mother 
Earth  as  the  floor,  and  which  would  have  been  comfort- 
able enough  if  the  good  woman  had  not  bustled  about 
with  a  broom,  assuring  me  all  the  while,  ^^ith  many 
apologies,  that  her  house  was  not  half  good  enough  for 
me ;  but  she  stirred  up  such  a  dust  with  her  energetic 
broom  that  I  could  hardly  express  my  thanks  through 
coughing  and  sneezing — besides  which,  it  set  the  fleas 
hopping  and  skipping  about,  and  I  would  sooner  they 
had  been  undisturbed. 

Pano  had  been  in  America,  and  had  caught  some  of  the 
smart  habits  of  that  energetic  race  ;  but  he  had  not  lost 
the  habitual  dilatoriness  of  an  Ottoman  subject,  and  it 
was  now  about  to  be  exemplified. 

He  begged  me  not  to  trouble  my  head  about  dinner,  as 
he  had  made  inquiries  :  there  were  fowls  to  be  had,  and 
in  an  hour  he  would  have  a  grand  meal  ready,  consistmg 
of  soup,  boiled  fowl,  stuffed  cucumbers,  and  melina,  a 
delicious  Bulgarian  pastry. 

The  very  thought  of  this,  after  a  long  day's  ride  of  over 
fifty  miles,  was  decidedly  comforting. 

Pano  disappeared  into  the  khanjee  family  haunts,  and 
I  leisurely  unpacked  my  bag,  had  a  comfortable  wash  and 
change,  and,  as  it  was  a  lovely  evening,  I  took  a  stroll 
through  the  town. 

I  returned  in  about  an  hour,  and  finding  the  dust  in  my 
room  had  subsided,  sat  down  to  read.  I  was  naturally 
hungry,  but,  knowing  the  customs  of  the  country,  I  was 
determined  to  be  patient. 

Time  passed :  I  looked  at  my  watch,  and  found  it  was 
more  than  two  hours  since  Pano  had  assured  me  dinner 
would  be  ready  in  an  hour ;  I  therefore  inwardly  congrat- 


302  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

ulated  myself  that  it  would  soon  appear— possibly  tlie 
fowl  was  tough,  and  required  extra  boiling. 

In  about  a  quarter  of  an  hour  my  attention  was  at- 
tracted by  a  great  bustle  outside,  and  an  evident  alarm 
among  the  poultry,  with  sounds  as  though  of  missiles 
flying  about. 

"What  is  the  matter,  Pano  ? "  I  asked. 

"I  just  trying  to  catch  this  fowl,  sir." 

"What  fowl?" 

"Oh,  this  fowl  for  dinner,  sir  ! " 

He  had  not  even  commenced  to  cook  the  dinner,  and  it 
was  now  past  eight  o'clock  ! 

But  the  delay  did  not  end  there.  When  the  fowl  was 
caught,  killed,  and  plucked,  it  then  occurred  to  them  that 
a  fire  was  necessary  to  cook  it,  and  sticks  had  to  be  found, 
and  blown  up  into  a  flame  ;  and  all  this  time  the  khanjee's 
wife  was,  of  course,  talking  vivaciously. 

At  last,  some  time  after  nine  o'clock,  the  pot  was  bub- 
bling on  the  fire,  and  a  smell  as  of  incense  wafted  through 
the  air.  At  ten  o'clock  I  thought  the  soup  must  be  ready, 
and  made  my  way  to  see.  Pano  was  bending  over  the 
fire,  cleaning  something  in  a  plate. 

"  What  are  you  doing  1 "  I  asked. 

"I  have  got  some  rice,  sir  ;  it  capital  for  soup,  so  I  go- 
ing to  put  it  in  ;  soon  we  shall  have  fine  dinner." 

Now  rice  takes  nearly  an  hour  to  boil,  and  he  was  de- 
liberately, at  ten  o'clock,  going  to  put  rice  into  the  soup 
w^hich  was  then  nearly  ready  ! 

My  patience  was  exhausted,  and  the  pangs  of  hunger 
were  strong  upon  me,  so,  seizing  the  pot,  I  made  off  to  my 
room,  and  supped  off  stew  and  bread,  to  the  great  disap- 
pointment of  Pano,  who  would  have  had  the  whole  of 
his  promised  courses  ready  if  I  had  waited  until  mid- 
night. 

This  is  not  an  exceptional  case,  but  rather  the  rule  of 
dilatory  action  than  otherwise,  and  it  is  a  type  of  the 
manner  in  which  the  whole  administration  of  the  country, 
public,  private,  and  domestic,  is  carried  on. 


TRIALS  OF  PATIENCE.  303 

I  afterward  took  the  cooking  into  my  o^Yn  liands,  and 
got  my  dinner  in  an  lioiir  after  tlie  halt.  Pano  was  not  a 
bad  cook,  and  I  taught  him  to  make  mutton  cutlets. 
"What  you  call  these,  sir,  in  English?"  he  asked. 
"  Cutlets,"  I  replied.  He  was  always  anxious  to  learn  a 
new  word,  and  I  heard  him  muttering  with  much  seK- 
satisfaction  as  he  thought  he  had  caught  the  proper  pro- 
nunciation, 

A  few  days  afterward  I  happened  to  ask  him  what 
he  had  for  dinner.  "  Just  a  few  '  cut-em-ups,'  sir  ;  the 
same  as  your  'cut-em-ups.'  " 

The  difficulty  of  obtaining  accurate  information  through 
an  interpreter  is  very  great,  and  also  very  trying  to  the 
patience,  but  it  may  be  mastered  after  some  experience  if 
it  is  combined  with  thorough  control  of  temper.  At  the 
risk  of  trying  the  patience  of  my  readers  I  will  give  an 
instance  of  the  difficulties  which  beset  a  traveler  in  that 
way. 

I  am  passing  a  field,  and  espy  a  crop  which  I  have  never 
seen  before,  and  a  man  working  in  the  field.  I  call  up  the 
interpreter:  "Pano,  what  is  that  growing  there?"  "I 
don't  know,  sir."  "  Ask  that  man,  and  find  out  all  about 
it."  He  talks  to  the  man  for  about  ten  minutes.  "  Well, 
what  does  he  say?"  "He  says,  sir,  that  he  plants  little 
seeds,  and  it  grows  like  that."  "Does  he  give  it  to  his 
horses  or  cattle  ?  "  Another  long  talk  now  takes  place, 
and  the  answer  comes  at  last :  "  No,  he  does  not  give  it  to 
his  cattle."  "What  does  he  do  with  it,  then?"  More 
talk.  "He  says  it  is  a  little  white  seed,  sort  of  brown 
color."  "Well,  what  does  he  do  with  it  ? "  A  very  long 
conversation  carried  on  in  crescendo  tones,  and  which  be- 
comes very  excited.  Now  we  shall  have  it.  "He  says, 
sir,  that  there  is  a  little  oil  in  that  seed."  "  Well,  what 
does  he  do  with  the  oil?"  Talk.  "He  seUs  the  oil." 
"Do  people  burn  the  oil ?  "  Talk.  "No,  he  says  people 
do  not  burn  the  oH."  "What  do  they  do  with  it?" 
Talk.  "  He  says  they  eat  the  oil."  "  '\yiiat  is  the  name 
of   it?"     Talk.     "He  says  it  called  difierent  names." 


304  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

^ '  Wliat  is  it  generally  called  ? ' '  Talk.  ' '  He  says  it  some- 
times called  sesame.''''  He  then  plunges  into  violent  con- 
versation until  you  would  suppose  that  a  quarrel  was 
brewing,  and  at  last  lie  says,  "This  man  says  that  cattle 
are  very  fond  of  that." 

This  leads  to  a  new  line  of  inquiry  ;  and  at  last,  out  of 
all  the  answers,  I  gather  this  information  :  that  the  plant  is 
called  sesame  ;  that  it  is  grown  for  its  seed,  which  is  made 
into  oil ;  that  the  oil  is  eaten  with  various  kinds  of  food, 
and  that  the  refuse  is  given  in  the  form  of  "cake"  to  cat- 
tle ;  that  it  is  a  summer  crop,  and  profitable. 

It  is  no  use  asking  a  direct  question.  You  must  ap- 
proach the  subject  from  various  points  leading  up  to  your 
object ;  but  it  takes  a  long  time,  and  if  you  happen  to  lose 
your  patience  and  temper  you  get  back  an  answer — by 
way  of  making  everything  smooth — which  is  about  as  in- 
correct and  misleading  as  it  well  can  be. 

I  found  much  difficulty  in  getting  any  accurate  informa- 
tion at  Slatitza  as  to  the  distance  of  my  next  day's  journey 
to  Samakov,  but  I  surmised  that  it  must  be  a  very  long 
ride,  and  I  therefore  determined  to  start  before  daybreak. 
The  baggage  could  make  two  days  of  the  journey,  as  Pano 
had  informed  me  that  Mr.  Clarke,  of  the  American  Mis- 
sion, was  residing  at  Samakov,  and  would  be  able  to  put 
me  up. 

We  were  off  at  four  o'clock  on  a  most  lovely  morning, 
and  I  felt  a  sort  of  instinct  that  it  was  necessary  to  keep 
up  the  pace  if  we  wanted  to  get  to  our  journey's  end  in  the 
day.  Our  route  lay  along  a  small  plain  at  the  foot  of  lofty 
rocky  mountains,  and  after  traveling  for  about  ten  miles, 
we  descended  into  a  most  curious  country,  which,  in  the  dis- 
tance, appeared  like  a  small  plain,  but  on  closer  acquaint- 
ance, it  was  corrugated  with  innumerable  "nullahs,"  from 
five  to  twenty  feet  deep,  formed  by  the  action  of  streams 
which  were  now  dry.  Some  of  these  corrugations  were  not 
more  than  two  feet  wide  at  the  top,  and  yet  ten  feet  or 
more  in  depth.  The  soil  was  a  decomposed  syenite,  and 
was  covered  with  rich  pasture.    We  soon  turned  sharp  off 


PLAINS  OF  SOFIA.  305 

to  the  left  across  a  small  river  and  into  a  winding  patli  np 
a  very  steep  hill  covered  with  forest,  which  lasted  for  about 
two  miles,  and  then  led  us  down  a  long  winding  pass  which 
skirted  a  wooded  river  for  several  miles,  and  emerged  on 
to  broken  hills  on  the  edge  of  the  great  and  fertile  plain  of 
Sofia. 

The  view  here  was  magnificent,  and  if  the  air  had  been 
very  clear  we  should  probably  have  seen  the  town  of 
Sofia.  The  plain  was  dotted  over  with  villages,  and  there 
were  more  trees  than  are  usually  seen  in  the  low  lands  of 
Turkey.  The  route  we  had  come  is  the  one  which  would 
have  to  be  taken  by  an  army  which  purposed  marching 
for  the  Tundja  valley  from  Sofia,  and  thus  upon  Yanboli 
and  Adrianople,  while  the  other  route  would  be  by  the 
line  of  the  present  railway. 

The  nature  of  the  country  through  which  we  had  passed 
would  in  many  places  offer  very  serious  but  not  insur- 
mountable difliculties  for  the  advance  of  an  army  against 
an  enemy  in  occupation. 

The  Vitosh  Mountain,  composed  of  an  enormous  syenite 
mass,  rose  on  our  right  to  a  height  of  7,475  feet  above  the 
sea,  while,  just  dimly  visible  in  our  front,  w^ere  the  still 
higher  Rilo  Mountains,  whose  feet  we  had  to  reach  that 
evening. 

We  were  here  at  the  meeting  of  the  mountain  systems 
of  Turkey ;  and  the  Balkan,  the  Roumelian  Hills,  the 
Rhodope,  and  the  Upper  Moesian  ranges  met  in  common 
council. 

The  distance  of  the  Rilo  Mountains  told  me  that  no 
time  was  to  be  lost ;  but  our  plucky  little  horses  were 
equal  to  the  call  made  upon  them,  and  kept  up  the  pace. 

At  two  o'clock  we  had  arrived  at  a  small  village  full  of 
Italian  and  German  engineers  and  workmen,  busy  upon 
the  line  of  railway,  which  was  in  a  forward  state.  Here 
we  had  a  hurried  lunch,  and  again  pushed  on. 

The  scenery  as  we  approached  the  RUo  Mountains  was 
grand  in  the  extreme.  Their  highest  point  reaches  9,750 
feet  above  the  sea,  and  my  spirits  rose  as  I  thought  that 
20 


306  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

in  a  few  days  I  should  have  my  tent  pitched  among  their 
wild  heights  in  the  land  of  bears  and  red  deer. 

We  still  passed  over  rough  hills  of  decomposed  syenite, 
and  containing  mudi  mica  and  magnetic  iron  ore,  and  as 
the  sun  set  Ave  descried  the  white  minarets  of  Samakov 
lying  under  the  dark  mountains  in  our  front.  It  now 
commenced  raining  heavily,  and  we  were  not  sorry  to  hear 
the  clatter  of  our  horses'  feet  on  the  rough  pavement  of 
the  streets  of  the  town,  as  we  rode  up  to  the  khan  at 
half-past  eight,  after  a  ride  of  seventy-two  miles. 

The  horses  were,  of  course,  rather  tired,  but  they  bore 
the  journey  remarkably  well,  considering  that  they  had 
done  fifty  miles  the  day  before.  We  were  soon  hospita- 
bly housed  by  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Clarke,  and  after  my  rough 
life  the  comforts  of  an  American  home  were  very  en- 
joyable. 

I  have  already  alluded  to  the  missionary  work  which  is 
so  bravely  and  perseveringly  carried  out  by  Mr.  Clarke 
and  his  brother  missionaries.  They  had  just  finished  a 
very  large  and  substantial  school-house,  and  I  was  present 
at  a  very  well  attended  service  in  Bulgarian.  One  of 
their  converts  of  that  nation  spoke  English  fluently.  The 
rancor  of  the  Greek  clergy  is  very  great,  every  convert  is 
excommunicated,  and  all  Christian  shops  are  forbidden 
to  sell  him  any  supplies  of  either  food  or  clothing. 

The  Turkish  authorities  do  not  look  with  favor  upon 
these  Protestant  missions,  because  they  see  in  them  the 
germs  of  a  disturbing  element  between  their  Christian 
subjects. 

Samakov  is  celebrated  for  its  iron-works.  Turkish  iron 
is  the  finest,  perhaps,  in  the  world,  and  is  considered  even 
superior  to  that  of  Sweden  and  Siberia. 

The  small  quantity  which  is  made  is  all  consumed  in 
the  country,  chiefly  for  making  horse-shoe  nails. 

It  is  manufactured  from  the  sand  of  the  magnetic  iron 
ore,  washed  out  of  the  decomposed  syenite,  which  forms 
the  neighboring  hills. 

The  smelting  furnaces  are  of  a  most  primitive  descrip- 


SAMAKOV.  307 

tion.  A  factory  is  built  on  the  bank  of  a  river  which 
flows  through  the  town,  and  which  is  used  to  turn  an 
undershot  w^ater-wheel  which  works  two  pairs  of  large 
bellows,  together  with  a  rude  kind  of  hammer  which  is 
attached  to  a  long  lever,  and  is  made  to  rise  and  fall  by 
means  of  catches  on  the  axle  of  the  water-wheel.  AU  the 
parts  of  the  machinery  (if  it  is  deserving  that  name)  are 
made  of  wood. 

The  bellows  play  alternately  so  as  to  keep  up  a  con- 
tinuous draught  into  the  bottom  of  a  large  earthenware 
crucible  about  five  feet  high,  shaped  like  a  pear  with  the 
stalk  below.  This  is  filled  -vvith  charcoal,  and  the  well- 
washed  iron  sand,  which,  when  smelted,  is  drawn  out 
from  below  in  a  large  irregular  and  white-hot  lump,  weigh- 
ing about  two  hundred- weight.  This  is  dragged  under- 
neath the  great  hammer,  which  beats  it  into  jagged  bars 
about  six  feet  long,  three  inches  wide,  and  three-quarters 
of  an  inch  thick,  and  in  that  form  it  is  sent  off  to  all  parts 
of  Turkey. 

The  trade  is  mostly  in  the  hands  of  Jews.  The  practice 
is  to  build  a  factory  and  place  it  at  the  service  of  the 
villagers,  who  wash  for  the  magnetic  iron  ore,  which  is 
brought  by  these  men  to  the  factory,  who  also  provide  the 
charcoal  and  smelt  the  iron  themselves.  They  are  then 
bound  to  sell  it  to  the  owner  of  the  building  at  a  pre- 
arranged price. 

Iron  is  also  produced  in  a  similar  manner  at  another 
town  called  Samakov,  near  Kury  Burun,  on  the  Black 
Sea  coast. 

I  believe  there  exists  here  a  most  favorable  opening  for 
any  company  with  command  of  capital  and  experienced 
iron-workers,  who  might  start  a  smelting  and  iron  fac- 
tory at  Samakov.  The  climate  is  very  healthy,  and  the 
railway  will  soon  pass  within  fifteen  miles  of  the  town. 
There  is  a  coal  bed  only  six  miles  off,  which  crops  out 
of  the  mountain  side,  but  it  is  what  is  known  as  the 
"brown"  coal. 

There  is  an  excellent  highway  road  from  Samakov  to 


308  TURKEY  m  EVROPE. 

Dubnitza,  and  also  to  the  line  of  railway  wMcli  runs  to 
Constantinople. 

I  found  that  RHo  Monastir  was  about  twelve  honrs'  ride 
over  the  mountains  by  a  very  rough  path,  and  two  days' 
journey  by  carriage-road.  I  engaged  a  mountaineer  who 
was  well  acquainted  with  that  part  of  the  country,  and 
determined  to  take  the  shorter  route.  The  weather  was 
now  beautiful ;  and  taking  leave  of  my  kind  host,  who 
had  given  me  much  useful  information,  I  made  a  start, 
but  not  without  a  delay  which  detained  us  until  one 
o'clock,  and  consequently  obliged  us  to  camp  for  that 
night  on  the  hill ;  but  I  was  detennined  to  set  out,  as  I 
felt  that  the  morrow  would  probably  witness  similar 
delays,  while,  if  I  once  got  the  men  and  my  tents  on 
the  mountain,  I  could  dictate  my  own  time  for  an  early 
start. 

The  ride  from  Samakov  to  Rilo  Monastir  passes  through 
scenery  as  grand  as  any  in  the  world.  I  cannot  conceive 
anything  more  beautiful.  For  several  miles  the  path  runs 
by  the  side  of  a  cascading  river,  through  grand  valleys, 
with  precipitous  rocky  sides,  studded  with  the  finest 
pine-trees  I  have  ever  seen ;  it  then  commences  a  steep 
ascent  up  a  very  rough  pass,  with  rocks  of  every  variety 
of  form  and  color  on  either  side,  and  here  and  there  a 
gorge  which  opens  out  the  great  mountain  tops  beyond. 
Waterfalls  burst  out  and  lose  themselves  in  spray  to 
moisten  ferns  and  flowers  which  lie  below.  Now  you  are 
riding  on  the  edge  of  a  precipice  a  thousand  feet  or  more 
above  a  river,  which  foams  and  roars  as  it  struggles  around 
great  broken  rocks  that  once  dwelt  yonder  where  the 
eagles  are  circling,  three  thousand  feet  above  ;  now  you 
crest  a  rounded  ridge,  with  grassy  glades  and  forests  of 
pine  and  oak,  and  views  of  mountains  far  and  near.  Add 
to  all  this  a  clear  blue  sky  and  the  tonic  of  the  air — such 
air ! — and  you  get  a  glimpse  of  heaven. 

All  this  I  enjoyed  until  we  had  ascended  about  six 
thousand  feet  above  the  sea,  and  the  sun  had  set  below 
a  neighboring  ridge.     I  chose  a  small  grassy  plot  near  a 


AN  E VENT  A  T  LAST.  309 

rocky  stream,  as  clear  as  crystal,  with  a  pine-wood  within 
twenty  yards,  and  the  higher  mountains  right  and  left. 

It  was  a  wild  spot,  and  here  I  called  a  halt.  The  tents 
were  pitched,  camp-tires  lighted,  horses  picketed,  by  which 
time  all  was  pitchy  dark. 

Dinner  was  over  ;  Pano  had  put  up  his  complicated  bed 
in  the  tent  close  to  mine,  which  he  occupied  with  John ; 
the  zaptieh  and  hunter  rolled  themselves  up  by  the 
embers  of  the  fire  outside,  and  we  all  turned  in  for  the 
night.  Presently  the  zaptieh  called  to  us  in  a  low  voice 
to  get  up  quickly  and  bring  our  pistols.  I  heard  a  crash 
in  the  next  tent,  which  I  knew  to  be  Pano's  patent  bed 
collapsing  from  the  effect  of  the  start.  I  went  out,  and 
the  zaptieh  said  that  there  were  people  about  the  tents 
who  were  probably  brigands.  I  ordered  every  one  to 
come  to  the  rocks,  a  few  rods  off,  away  from  the  light  of 
the  fire,  and  we  listened. 

There  was  no  doubt  about  it ;  there  were  people  mutter- 
ing and  whispering  close  by.  This  really  looked  like  an 
event  at  last !  I  told  Pano  to  call  out  to  them  to  come 
forward  to  the  fire,  or  we  should  shoot.  There  was  no 
answer,  and  all  was  silent  save  the  rippling  of  the  burn. 
Again  I  told  him  to  call  that  if  they  wished  to  save  their 
lives  they  must  come  forward  and  we  would  do  them  no 
harm.  It  is  no  use,  0  reader,  we  cannot  have  a  startling 
event,  for  out  of  the  dark  came  a  whining  voice,  begging  for 
mercy,  and  it  was  soon  followed  by  three  poor  wretched 
creatures,  who  were  bound  for  the  monastery,  and  had 
lost  their  way  in  the  dark,  and  were  benighted.  I  soon  had 
our  imaginary  enemies  round  the  fire,  with  a  good  hot 
cup  of  coffee  and  some  bread  and  cheese,  which  they  ate 
as  though  they  were  half  famished. 

Pano  was  busy  adjusting  the  sticks  of  his  spider-bed, 
and  in  about  half  an  hour  we  were  again  all  dozing  off  to 
sleep. 

I  was  suddenly  awakened  by  the  neighing  and  almost 
screaming  of  the  horses,  as  they  kicked  and  tore  at 
the  picket  ropes.     I  knew  that  it  awoke  Pano  also,  for 


31 0  TURKEY  IN  E  UROPE. 

I  heard  his  bed  collapse  again,  as,  jumping  up  and  rnn- 
ning  out,  I  seized  a  fire-stick,  and  made  for  the  horses  ; 
but  the  zaptieh  was  there  before  me.  The  poor  animals 
were  sweating  and  trembling  all  over,  and  seemed  in  the 
greatest  terror. 

The  cause  was  soon  manifested  in  the  cracking  of  some 
of  the  branches  of  the  neighboring  underwood  a  few 
yards  off,  and  I  knew  that  it  must  be  a  bear.  It  was  no 
use  firing  as  it  was  pitch  dark  ;  but  I  had  a  fire  lighted 
close  to  the  horses. 

These  bears  are  of  the  great  brown  variety,  and  the 
largest  that  are  known,  being  as  much  as  eight  feet  high 
when  they  sit  up.  It  turned  out  that  this  animal  was  a 
well-linown  horse-stealer,  and  that  only  the  night  before 
he  had  killed  two  horses  in  this  very  part  of  the  mountain. 

Grass  is  so  abundant  everywhere  that  the  natives  graze 
their  sheep  and  cattle  at  altitudes  of  7,000  feet  and  more. 
Many  of  their  horses  fall  as  victims  to  the  bears,  w^hich 
are  plentiful  in  these  wild  mountains,  and  if  once  they  get 
a  taste  for  horseflesh  they  become  very  troublesome. 

Pano  was  now  busy  setting  up  his  pet  bed  again,  and  at 
last  I  knew  from  the  creaking  that  he  had  performed  the 
feat  of  carefully  stretching  his  long  body  upon  it.  He 
must  have  been  a  very  sound  sleeper,  as  the  slightest 
movement  brought  the  bed  down,  and  a  sneeze  would 
have  collapsed  it  in  a  moment. 

Presently  I  knew  from  the  heavy  breathing  that  they 
were  asleep  in  the  next  tent,  and  as  I  lay  a  wicked  thought 
came  o'er  me.  I  could  not  resist  the  temptation,  and  so 
called  out,  "Pano!"  "Sir!" — crash — and  Pano  again 
lay  among  the  ruins;  the  vibration  of  answering  "Sir" 
had  brought  him  down,  as  I  thought  it  would. 

But  he  put  it  all  together  again,  and  I  left  him  in  peace, 
and  feU  asleep. 

I  was  up  with  the  early  dawn,  and  oh,  what  a  lovely 
view  was  there !  I  stood  outside  the  tent ;  all  the  rest 
were  sleeping.  But  to  escape  from  all  contact  with  human 
life  I  wandered  some  yards  away,  and  was  alone  with  IS'a- 


RILO  MONASTIR.  311 

tnre  and  lier  silence.  Iligli  above  me  the  dark  mountain 
peaks  stood  out  from  the  white  mist,  which  looked  lilie 
snow  below  ;  nearer,  the  rugged  rocks,  the  old  and  gnarled 
pines,  the  ferns  and  grasses,  gathered  color  as  the  day- 
light grew :  and  all  was  still — so  still !  Then  the  dark 
peaks  grew  to  purple,  the  i)urple  grew  to  crimson,  the 
snowy  mist  became  a  golden  fleece,  and  "God  said.  Let 
there  be  light :  and  there  was  light.  And  God  saw  every- 
thing that  he  had  made  :  and  behold,  it  was  very  good." 

We  descended  from  our  mountain-top  for  about  ten 
miles,  through  exquisite  scenery,  and  then  caught  sight 
of  the  monastery  of  Rilo,  lying  among  the  woods  some 
miles  below.  To  our  right,  perched  up  among  the  rocks 
and  woods,  was  the  smaller  monastery  of  St.  John,  and 
farther  down  another,  which  is  dedicated  to  St.  Luke. 
At  last  we  approached  the  great  quadrangular  building  of 
Rilo  Monastir — a  sight  in  itself !  It  is  built  upon  a  rocky 
height  overhanging  a  foaming  river,  on  the  site  of  an 
ancient  ruin,  a  tower  of  which  is  enclosed  by  the  monas- 
tery, and  which  is  supposed  to  have  been  built  by  Peter, 
King  of  the  Bulgarians,  in  the  ninth  century,  to  protect  a 
holy  hermit  who  lived  there. 

A  deep  and  rocky  mountain  burn  makes  its  way  close 
to  the  monastery  walls,  down  to  the  river  below,  and 
forms  a  kind  of  moat  for  the  great  eastern  gateway,  where 
sits  an  Albanian  guard  in  handsome  crimson  uniforms, 
with  silver  facings,  and  among  them  a  few  aged  monks, 
basking  in  the  sun. 

As  we  ride  under  the  archway,  surmounted  by  a  splen- 
did royal  head  of  red  deer's  horns,  and  enter  the  great 
court,  a  loud  clang  of  bells  comes  forth,  as  a  peal  of  wel- 
come, from  the  high  belfry  in  the  center  of  the  building. 
Monks  are  walking  in  the  cloisters  around  and  telling 
their  beads,  and  one  of  them  steps  forward  and  takes  charge 
of  our  horses  as  we  dismount.  A  tall  dark  monk  then 
appears,  and  by  the  great  keys  hanging  at  his  gu'dle  I 
know  that  he  is  the  steward.  He  takes  us  in  charge,  and 
we  are  shown  throu2:h  the  long  galleries  into  a  comforta- 


313  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

ble  room,  richly  carpeted,  and  with  a  small  window  look- 
ing sheer  down  the  precipitous  rocks  into  the  foaming 
river  below.  After  a  time  I  asked  permission  to  pay  my 
respects  to  the  abbot,  and  am  led  through  the  long  colon- 
naded galleries  to  a  door  which  opens  into  an  ante-room, 
and  from  thence  mto  a  comfortable  chamber,  with  a  beau- 
tiful carpet  of  native  manufacture,  and  upon  a  weU- 
cushioned  divan  sits  the  portly,  handsome,  and  gray- 
bearded  abbot,  who  courteously  rises  to  receive  me. 

He  hopes  that  I  am  made  comfortable  ;  vriU  I  inform  the 
steward  of  my  wants,  which  shall  be  attended  to,  etc.,  etc. 

After  many  civil  speeches  I  retire,  and  make  prepara- 
tions for  my  start  the  next  day  for  the  ^dlder  jDarts  of  the 
mountains,  in  search  of  deer.  The  monks  are  most  civil 
and  obliging,  and  say  they  can  send  all  my  baggage  up 
the  mountain,  and  keep  me  stocked  with  provisions.  It 
is  arranged  that  I  shall  pitch  my  tents  about  twelve  miles 
away,  high  up  one  of  the  three  long  ravines  which  radiate 
from  the  monastery,  and  I  am  to  start  at  daybreak  the 
next  morning. 

Of  course  there  were  the  usual  delays,  and  I  did  not  get 
away  before  twelve  o'  clock. 

It  is  impossible  to  describe  the  scenery  of  this  lovely 
spot ;  it  must  be  seen  to  be  appreciated.  The  monastery, 
although  in  a  ravine,  is  probably  3,000  feet  above  the  sea, 
and  is  surrounded  by  mountains  varying  in  height  from 
6,000  to  nearly  10,000  feet,  which  look  down  into  the  very 
courtyard.  There  are  romantic  walks  by  mountain  burns, 
through  groves  of  flowering  shrubs  and  filbert-trees,  pretty 
glades  and  rustic  bridges,  ferns  and  flowers ;  everything, 
in  fact,  to  make  life  enjoyable. 

After  a  charming  ride  of  four  hours,  we  had  ascended  to 
a  wild  spot  about  6,000  feet  above  the  sea,  and  here  the 
hunter  advised  me  to  pitch  my  tents.  As  soon  as  they 
were  up,  I  sent  back  all  the  horses  save  one,  and  reduced 
our  party  to  Pano,  John,  the  zaptieh,  the  hunter,  and 
myseK. 

The  country  was  generally  open,  with  large  grassy  cor- 


DELIGHTFUL  MUSIC.  313 

ries,  and  below  great  patches  of  forest.  It  was  a  pleasant 
occupation  unpacking  my  guns,  and  I  now  looked  forward 
to  a  fortnight  of  my  favorite  sport,  deer-stalldng.  Tlie 
hunter  informed  me  that  the  red  deer  were  in  the  habit  of 
lea\iiig  the  forests  in  the  evening,  and  returning  a  few 
hours  after  daylight  in  the  morning  ;  so,  as  it  was  not  yet 
sunset,  I  went  with  him  a  few  miles  up  the  ravine.  Alas ! 
in  every  direction  I  came  upon  sheep  with  shepherds  and 
then*  barking  dogs  ;  and  wherever  I  brought  my  spyglass 
to  bear  upon  the  mountain-tops,  there  it  came  upon  cattle 
and  horses. 

From  my  experience  of  deer  in  other  countries,  I  thought 
there  was  no  hope  of  sport  here,  and  I  returned  to  my  tent 
disgusted  and  dispirited.  The  hunter  assured  me  that  the 
deer  did  not  mind  the  shepherds  and  their  dogs,  and  that 
as  to  chamois,  as  a  Highland  forester  once  said  of  the 
sheep,  "the  mountains  were  just  crarling  with  them." 
But  I  did  not  believe  him.  It  was  dark  when  I  arrived  at 
the  tent,  which  I  entered  in  a  very  bad  humor,  and  had 
quite  made  up  my  mind  that  there  were  no  red  deer  in  the 
country  at  all,  when — what  was  that  ?  Surely  ?  I  listened. 
Presently,  "  Bor-or-r-r-r-awh,  awh,  awh !"  went  echoing 
through  the  mountains.  Delightful  music  !  It  was  a  stag 
roaring  in  the  wood  above,  and  not  a  quarter  of  a  mile  off. 
Stop  ;  was  that  an  echo  1  No,  it  was  another  answering 
— down  yonder,  in  the  bum  below.  I  was  never  in  a 
better  temper  in  my  life,  and  felt  inclined  to  rush  out  and 
shake  the  hunter  by  the  hand,  and  apologize  for  having 
for  a  moment  doubted  his  information. 

I  went  outside  the  tent,  and  made  my  plans  for  the 
morning.  Within  ten  yards  of  me  was  a  rocky  burn  ;  on 
the  other  side  of  it  rose  the  almost  precipitous  mountain 
of  loose  rocks,  interspersed  with  trees  and  brushes  ;  about 
a  mile  above,  it  became  less  steep,  and  devoid  of  wood, 
and  merged  into  a  sloping  grass  ridge  that  formed  the 
hog's-back  of  the  great  mountain,  which  stretched  for 
miles  away.  The  wind  was  blowing  in  the  direction  of 
the  ridge  ;  if  it  was  the  same  in  the  morning  I  would  make 


314  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

my  way  straight  up  tlie  steep  side  to  tlie  very  top,  so  as 
to  be  there  as  soon  after  daylight  as  possible.  I  could 
then  spy  below  along  a  great  length  of  the  edge  of  the 
woods,  and  if  deer  were  out  feeding  I  could  stalk  them. 

We  all  "turned  in."  I  heard  Pano's  bed  collapse  sev- 
eral times,  and  at  last  I  fell  asleep  to  the  music  of  bellow- 
ing stags.  I  was  up  long  before  daybreak,  and  it  was  a 
lovely  morning.  My  long-looked-for  sport  was  to  come 
at  last ! 

"  Mais  rhomme  propose,  et  Dieu  dispose." 

Taking  only  the  hunter  with  me,  before  day  broke  I 
was  crawling  up  the  steep  side  of  the  mountain.  I  was 
used  to  this  sort  of  work,  and  had  made  good  progress 
by  the  time  it  was  broad  daylight. 

A  stag  was  roaring  occasionally,  about  half  a  mile  on 
my  right,  and  to  windward,  so  that  was  cheering.  Sud- 
denly I  saw  chamois  feeding  among  some  rocks  and 
bushes,  about  400  yards  on  my  right  front.  The  hunter 
was  dressed  in  dark  clothes,  and  evidently  did  not  under- 
stand deer-stalking,  so  I  placed  him  behind  a  rock,  with 
orders  not  to  move  until  I  came  for  him.  I  had  now  to 
clear  the  chamois,  so  as  to  get  well  above  them,  in  order 
that  I  might  approach  the  red  deer.  As  I  was  crawling 
among  some  rocks  and  bushes  to  accomplish  this,  I  came 
upon  the  fresh  track  of  a  bear.  He  must  have  only  just 
passed,  as  the  juice  of  some  wild  raspberries  which  he  had 
been  eating  was  hanging  in  drops  from  the  bushes,  and 
there  were  other  unmistakable  signs  that  the  tracks  were 
quite  recent.     Here  was  sport  indeed ! 

I  slipped  my  rifle  out  of  its  cover,  and  continued  my 
crawling  progress.  The  mountain  here  was  so  steep  that 
it  was  difficult  to  stand  upright,  and  the  ground  was  com- 
posed of  loose  stones  piled  upon  each  other  as  though 
the  hill  had  been  formed  by  hail  composed  of  bits  of 
rock. 

I  have  good  reason  to  remember  the  spot. 

I  was  crawling  up  this,  and  drawing  my  rifle  carefully 
after  me,  when  the  whole  mass  began  to  slip,  and  the  loose 


AN  ACCIDENT.  315 

stones  came  flying  about.     I  was  just  aware  of  the  explo- 
sion at  tlie  muzzle  of  my  rifle,  and  then  all  was  blank. 

My  next  sensible  experience  was  that  I  was  sitting  upon 
the  rocks,  that  it  was  pitch-dark,  and  I  was  very  wet. 
I  instinctively  rubbed  my  eyes,  and  then  discovered  that 
I  had  met  with  an  accident,  and  was  covered  with  blood. 

The  rocks  had  struck  the  lock  of  my  express  rifle,  and 
although  it  was  "  stopped  "  had  set  it  off  when  the  muzzle 
was  only  a  few  inches  from  my  head.  The  ball  had  struck 
the  stones  close  to  my  face,  and  splashed  back  the  bits  of 
lead  all  over  me,  and  for  a  time  made  me  insensible.  My 
face  was  covered  with  lead  splinters,  and  I  could  only  see, 
indistinctly,  with  one  eye.  I  called  to  the  liunter,  wlio 
was  away  behind  his  rock  below,  and  at  last  when  the 
poor  man  came  up  and  saw  what  a  gory  spectacle  I  pre- 
sented, he  was  in  a  great  state  of  mind,  and  commenced 
crying,  "  Aman !  aman ! "  as  lie  covered  Ms  face  with  his 
hands. 

I  found  it  somewhat  difficult  to  make  my  way  down  the 
rough  face  of  the  mountain,  but  with  the  help  of  the 
liunter  I  at  last  reached  the  tent.  Pano  and  John  were 
much,  concerned  at  the  sight  I  presented,  but  I  soon  got  a 
good  wash,  and  had  an  inspection  of  wounds.  It  did  not 
then  appear  so  bad,  after  all.  I  had  a  good  many  small  bits 
of  lead  in  my  face,  but  my  eyes  seemed  quite  whole,  and  I 
comforted  myself  that  the  loss  of  sight  was  only  occa- 
sioned by  the  effusion  of  blood,  and  that  in  an  hour  or 
two  I  might  see  well  enough  again.  But  I  soon  had  symp- 
toms which  told  me  it  would  be  more  prudent  to  ride  back 
to  the  monastery,  at  all  events  for  a  time  ;  but  I  was  loath 
to  move  my  tents,  and,  still  hoping  to  return,  I  left  the 
zaptieh  and  hunter  in  charge,  and  started  with  Pano  and 
John  for  the  monastery. 

The  injuries  turned  out  to  be  more  serious  than  I  an- 
ticipated, and  I  had  to  shut  myself  up  in  a  dark  room  for 
some  days,  and  then  make  the  best  of  my  way  to  Salonica. 
The  monks  were  most  kind  and  attentive,  and  did  all  they 
could  do  for  me. 


316  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

From  tliem  I  learned  a  curious  story  about  a  stag,  whicli, 
as  it  was  corroborated  by  other  people,  must,  I  conclude, 
be  true.  Two  years  ago  there  was  a  herd  of  horses  gi-azing 
away  on  the  mountain-tops,  when  an  alarmed  stag  was 
seen  galloping  toward  them.  The  horses  took  fright  and 
started  off,  but  the  stag  soon  had  the  best  of  it  on  the 
mountains,  and  joined  his  equine  companions. 

Still  more  alarmed,  the  horses  made  their  way  down  to 
their  field  near  the  monastery.  Yet  the  stag  never  left 
them,  but  entered  the  field,  and  afterward  became  a 
recognized  member  of  the  herd  for  months,  and  until  the 
rutting  season  commenced,  when  he  disappeared.  He 
must  have  been  "  off  his  head ! " 

There  is  a  great  deal  of  Albanian  blood  among  the 
people  in  the  district  of  Rilo.  I  learned  much  about  this 
interesting  people  while  staying  at  the  monastery,  and  I 
was  afterward  able  to  supplement  it  by  the  valuable  infor- 
mation I  received  from  Consul  Blunt,  whose  knowledge 
and  experience  of  Turkey,  together  with  his  ability  and 
observation,  were  of  the  greatest  assistance  to  me.  I  am 
glad  of  this  opportunity  of  thanking  him  publicly,  as  I 
have  often  done  privately,  for  all  the  assistance  and  infor- 
mation he  has  been  good  enough  to  afford  me. 

AYhile  we  are  resting  at  the  monastery  I  will  give  my 
readers  the  best  idea  I  can  of  the  Albanians. 


CHAPTER  xyn. 

THE   ALBAjS^IANS. 

Their  Origin — Gheglias  and  Toskas — lUyrians  and  Macedonian  Phalanx — 
Scanderbeg — Distribution  of  Albanian  Tribes — Their  Eeligions — Viss- 
Blood  Feuds — Itinerant  Trade — Rascians — Toskas— Albanians  as  Soldiers 
— The  Pasha  of  Scodra. 

PHYSICALLY  a  splendid  race  of  men,  the  Albanians 
can  claim  to  be  one  of  the  purest  and  oldest  races  in 
Europe,  their  only  rivals  being  the  Iberians  in  the  Span- 
ish Peninsula. 

They  have  a  peculiar  language  of  their  own,  supposed 
to  be  Indo-European,  but  it  is  somewhat  corrupted  by  its 
Slavonic  neighbor  on  the  north,  and  Greek  on  the  south. 

By  it  they  are  called  Skipetar,  which  means  moun- 
taineer. The  Byzantine  writers  gave  them  the  name  of 
Arvanitse,  which  was  corrupted  by  the  Turks  into  Arna- 
out ;  and  the  tei*m  Albania  is  supposed  to  be  Latin  by 
Latham,  who  considers  Albyn  as  applied  to  Scotland  and 
Albyn  as  applied  to  the  mountainous  country  on  the 
eastern  side  of  the  Adriatic  to  be  one  and  the  same 
word,  referable  to  one  and  the  same  Keltic  group  of 
tongues.  Hence  it  contains  the  root  Alp  =  mountain, 
and  translates  the  native  name  Skipetar  =  mountain- 
eer.* 

There  is  another  Albania  (modem  Daghestan)  in  the 
Caucasus,  and  some  writers  consider  that  the  inhabitants 
were  one  and  the  same  people  as  their  namesakes  in 
Turkey.     It  is  certain  that  there  is  a  great  resemblance 

*  Latham. 

317 


318  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

between  the  Toskers  of  Albania  and  the  Circassians  of 
the  Caucasus. 

The  Skipetars  are  the  descendants  of  the  Southern 
niyrians  and  ancient  Epirots,  Chaonians,  Thesprotians, 
MoUossians,  etc.,  and  their  present  country  extends 
from  Montenegro  on  the  north  to  the  Gulf  of  Arta  on 
the  south. 

The  Skipetars  are  divided  into  the  following  clans  : — 

1.  The  Gheghides,  containing  {a.)  the  proper  Gheg- 
hides,  the  most  northern  of  the  Skipetar,  conterminous 
with  the  Slavonic  countries  of  Montenegro,  Bosnia,  and 
Herzegovina,  bounded  on  the  south  by  the  river  Drin ; 
(5.)  the  Miridites,  south  of  the  Drin,  in  the  province  of 
Croia,  who,  like  the  Gheghides,  are  partly  Christians. 
The  Gheghides,  as  a  class,  are  dark-skinned  and  black- 
eyed. 

2.  The  Toskides,  of  Toskuria,  or  the  country  between 
Croia  and  the  Vojutza,  the  least  mountainous  part  of 
Albania,  and  containing  the  valleys  of  the  Sternetza, 
and  the  Beratina.  They  are  more  fair  than  dark,  with 
blue  or  gray  eyes. 

3.  The  Liai^ides,  of  Liapuria,  or  the  valley  and  water- 
shed of  the  Deropuli,  and  the  parts  about  Debinaki,  are 
the  worst-looking,  and  the  most  demoralized  of  the 
Skipetar. 

4.  The  Dzhami,  of  Dzhamuria,  are  the  most  agricul- 
tural. They  extend  from  the  Liapides  on  the  north  to 
the  Greek  frontier  southward,  Parga  and  Suli  being  two 
of  their  towns. 

The  Taulantii  and  Parthini  are  the  populations  of  an- 
tiquity, whose  localities  coincide  with  that  of  the  Tos- 
kides. 

The  Liapides  are  in  the  country  of  the  Orestse  and 
Atintanes,  the  Gheghas  in  that  of  the  Enchelese,  the  Miri- 
dites in  that  of  the  Pirustse.  In  the  northern  part  of 
their  area  was  the  colony  of  Epidaurus  and  the  Dalma- 
tian frontier.* 

*  Latham. 


ALBANIANS.  319 

The  lUyrians  do  not  appear  in  history  before  the  Pelo- 
ponnesian  War,  when  Brasidas  and  Perdiccas  retreated 
before  them.  They  again  appear  in  the  reign  of  Philip 
of  Macedon,  who  partially  conquered  their  country,  and 
it  is  probable  that  from  them  was  recruited  the  celebrated 
Macedonian  phalanx.  The  ravages  of  the  lUyrian  pirates, 
B.C.  233,  interfered  with  the  commerce  of  the  allies  of 
Rome,  and  envoys  were  sent  to  Teuta,  their  queen.  To 
them  she  replied  that  piracy  was  the  habit  of  her  people  ; 
and  to  show  how  fitted  she  was  to  rule  over  such  a  race, 
she  had  the  envoys  murdered.  A  Roman  army  crossed 
the  gulf,  and  inflicted  punishment  for  the  offense. 

niyria  eventually  became  annexed  to  Rome,  and  was 
divided  into  three  parts — Dalmatia,  Tapydia,  and  Libur- 
nia.  The  people  were  constantly  endeavoring  to  recover 
their  liberty,  and  obliged  the  Romans  to  occupy  the 
country  in  force. 

Illyria  suffered  severely  under  the  Gothic  invasion,  but 
held  out  bravely  against  the  inroad  of  the  Huns  under 
Attila,  and  defeated  him  at  the  town  of  Azimus,  on  the 
frontier. 

The  warlike  nature  of  the  Skipetars  was  recognized  by 
foreign  nations,  and  we  find  them  recruiting  the  armies 
of  Greece,  Egypt,  and  Persia,  while  the  parent  race  lay 
secure  and  semi-independent  among  the  mountain  fast- 
nesses of  the  country.  In  the  sixth  century  the  fiood  of 
Bulgarian  invasion  spread  far  into  Albania,  and  left  colo- 
nies in  its  path,  which  may  be  found  there  in  the  pres- 
ent day,  especially  in  the  neighborhood  of  Upper  Debra, 
which  is  about  seventy  miles  from  Croia,  and  near  the 
fortress  of  Sfetegrade.  The  chief  interest  in  the  ancient 
history  of  Albania  is  centered  in  the  heroic  reign  of  Scan- 
derbeg,  or,  as  he  is  sometimes  called,  Iskender  Beg,  or 
the  Lord  Alexander.  In  a  small  district  of  the  beautiful 
country  of  Epirus,  between  the  Adriatic  and  the  moun- 
tains, there  lived  a  hereditary  prince,  named  John  Cas- 
triot,  A.D.  1404,  Lord  of  Emalthia,  the  modern  district 
of  Moghlene.    When  Amurath  II.  was  pushing  his  con- 


320  TURKEY  m  EUROPE. 

quests  in  Europe,  he  turned  Ms  arms  toward  Albania,  and 
after  a  gallant  struggle  the  Lord  of  Emalthia  had  to  suc- 
cumb to  the  Ottoman  power,  and  sent  his  four  sons  as 
hostages  for  his  regular  payment  of  the  enforced  tribute. 

Only  one  of  these  sons,  named  George,  survived,  and 
he  so  attracted  the  attention  of  the  Sultan  that  he  had 
him  educated  in  the  Mohammedan  creed.  His  soldier-like 
qualities  recommended  him  to  Amurath  in  consequence  of 
his  overthrowing  a  Tartar  and  two  Persians  who  carried  a 
defiance  to  the  Turkish  court,  and  the  name  of  Scander- 
beg  was  given  to  him  in  consequence.  The  principality 
of  his  father  had  been  reduced  into  a  province,  but  as  com- 
pensation it  was  given  the  rank  of  Sandjak,  a  command 
of  5,000  horse.  "*  The  Sultan  kept  Scanderbeg  on  active 
service  in  foreign  wars  after  the  death  of  his  father,  and 
his  sensitive  nature  was  so  wounded  at  this  injustice,  that 
he  determined  to  quit  the  Turkish  army  and  take  posses- 
sion of  his  own  territory. 

He  boldly  seized  the  Sultan's  chief  secretary,  and  made 
him,  on  pain  of  death,  sign  an  order  appointing  him 
(Scanderbeg)  as  the  Sultan's  viceroy  of  the  territory  above 
the  strong  city  of  Croia,  in  Albania.  He  then  killed  the 
secretary,  and  made  all  haste  to  Croia,  where  his  strata- 
gem was  completely  successful,  and  he  gained  possession 
of  the  fortress  and  country.  He  now  discarded  the  Mo- 
hammedan creed,  and  declared  himself  a  champion  of 
Christendom,  which  at  once  brought  him  a  host  of  enthu- 
siastic followers,  who  turned  upon  the  Turks  and  cruelly 
massacred  them.f  From  his  neighboring  allies,  and  the 
returns  from  the  salt-pits  of  Selina,  he  created  a  revenue 
of  200,000  ducats,  and  appropriated  the  whole  sum  to 
State  purposes.  By  skillfully  taking  advantage  of  the 
mountainous  nature  of  his  country,  he  was  able  to  defy 
the  attacks  of  Amurath  and  his  successor,  Mohammed,  for 
twenty-five  years,  with  a  force  of  only  8,000  cavalry  and 
7,000  infantry.  Such  was  the  renown  which  he  obtained 
that  volunteers  from  France  and  Germany  flocked  to  his 

*  Gibbon.  f  Creasy. 


ALIlA^^JAIi^S.  321 

standard.  Amnratli  attacked  him  at  the  head  of  60,000 
Turkish  cavaliy  and  40,000  Janizaries,  but,  although  he 
overran  the  country,  he  failed  to  take  Scanderbeg  in  the 
fortress  of  Croia.  The  resources  of  Scanderbeg  at  last 
became  exhausted  by  the  repeated  attacks  of  the  Turks, 
and  this  great  hero,  after  being  defeated  by  Mohammed 
II.,  managed  to  escape  to  Lissus,  in  Venetian  tenitory, 
where  he  ended  his  days  in  exile,  and  died  in  1467.  He 
saved  his  infant  son  in  his  flight,  who  was  aftei'ward 
granted  a  Neapolitan  dukedom,  and  the  blood  of  the  Cas- 
triot  still  flows  among  some  of  the  noblest  families  of 
Italy.  Although  Albania  was  defeated  by  the  Turks,  it 
can  never  be  said  to  have  been  subdued,  for  after  succes- 
sive struggles  by  independent  chiefs,  with  the  Ottoman 
power,  it  always  enjoyed  a  semi-independence,  and,  in- 
deed, does  so  in  a  less  degree  in  the  present  day. 

Roughly  speaking,  we  may  divide  the  Albanians  of  the 
present  day  (1877)  into  the  Gheghas  of  the  north  and  the 
Toskas  of  the  south.  The  former  country  is  called  by  the 
Turks  Gheghalik,  and  the  latter  Toskalik,  the  termination 
"  lik  "  signifying  "  belonging  to,"  in  the  Turkish  language. 
The  Gheghalik  is  eminently  mountainous,  having  on  its 
north  Montenegro,  or,  as  the  Turks  call  it,  Karadagh,  and 
the  natives  Temagora,  both  havmg  the  same  meaning  as 
Montenegro,  namely,  Black  Mountain  ;  and  on  the  north 
and  east  lie  Bosnia  and  Servia,  the  chief  districts  being 
Prisrend,  Ipek,  Jacova,  Dibra,  Matt,  Donkajin,  and  Miri- 
dit,  all  protected  by  their  mountains  and  defiles,  generally 
covered  with  dense  forests,  against  the  attacks  of  an 
enemy.  The  aforenamed  districts  lie  for  the  most  part 
along  the  borders  of  Montenegro,  Bosnia,  and  Servia, 
separating  them  from  the  fertile  plains  of  Uscuj),  Monas- 
tir,  and  Salonica.  They  also  squeeze  in  between  and  shut 
off  Montenegro  from  the  southern  district  of  Servia. 

In  a  military  sense  the  Gheghalik  may  be  called  a  great 
natural  fortification,  and  might  easily  be  made  impregna- 
ble, if  the  hardy  and  warlike  people  which  inhabit  the 
country  could  be  disciplined  and  organized  to  defend  it. 
21 


322  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

These  people  are  principally  attached  to  the  Mohammedan 
faith,  which  they  adopted  when  the  country  was  con- 
quered, but  not  subdued,  by  Mohammed  II.  The  amount 
of  the  Ghegha  population  is  variously  stated,  and  it  would 
be  difficult  to  be  even  approximately  accurate  from  the 
available  data. 

At  Dibra  it  is  affirmed  that  there  are  160,000  inhabitants, 
and  only  25,000  Christians  of  the  Greek  Church. 

In  Matt  and  Dukajin  the  population  is  entirely  Moham- 
medan. In  Miridit  it  is  Roman  Catholic,  and  is  estimated 
at  110,000. 

In  Jacova,  Ipek,  and  Prisrend  the  Mohammedan  ele- 
ment predominates  over  the  Christian  as  two  to  one  ;  and 
the  same  is  stated  as  the  case  in  some  districts  of  Scodra 
(Scutari)  and  Monastir. 

The  cause  of  the  prevalence  of  Mohammedanism  in 
these  countries  is  explained  by  the  statement  that,  after 
they  were  conquered  by  Mohammed  II.,  a  law  was  pro- 
mulgated which  secured  the  estates  of  the  population  to 
every  family  which  should  bring  up  one  of  its  members  in 
the  Mohammedan  faith. 

As  might  be  expected,  the  Gheghas  are  not  strict 
observers  of  the  doctrines,  rites,  and  ceremonies  of  the 
religion  of  convenience  which  they  adopted,  and  they  are 
consequently  held  in  great  contempt  by  the  rigid  Osman- 
lis,  with  whom  the  terms  infidel  and  Albanian  are  almost 
synonymous. 

"  He  frequently  takes  a  Christian  woman  to  be  his  wife, 
carries  his  sons  to  mosque,  and  allows  his  daughters  to 
attend  their  mother  to  church  ;  nay,  he  even  goes  himself 
alternately  to  both  places  of  worship,  and  eats  with  his 
family  out  of  the  same  dish  in  which  are  viands  forbidden 
to  the  disciples  of  Mohammed."  *  They  do  not  seclude 
their  women,  like  the  Turks,  and  from  motives  of  economy 
seldom  indulge  in  more  than  one  wife,  of  whom  they  are 
by  no  means  jealous.  The  wretched  women  cannot  be 
called  the  softer  sex,  as  they  are  warlike  in  their  tenden- 

*  Hughes. 


ALBANIANS.  323 

cies,  and  very  useful  in  border  fights.  They  go  about 
armed,  and  with  a  sack  containing  perhaps  two  childi'en 
on  their  back  they  make  their  way  to  their  field  to  labour, 
while  their  lord  and  master  is  ranging  the  mountains  in 
search  of  game,  and  singing  the  glories  of  Scanderbeg,  as 
he  rests  fi'om  his  climb  up  the  beautiful  hills.  The  fea- 
tures of  the  women  are  coarse  from  exposure,  and  both 
sexes  are  extremely  dirty  in  their  persons,  seldom  chang- 
ing their  clothes  until  they  drop  off,  and  avoiding  the 
external  application  of  water  as  though  it  were  poison. 
On  high  days  and  holidays  an  outer  and  very  picturesque 
coating  of  dress  is  temporarily  donned,  lilve  a  brilliant 
paper  on  a  dirty  wall.  The  men  have  that  lordly  and 
independent  air  and  strut  which  are  usually  found 
among  all  highlanders. 

It  is  calculated  that  the  Gheghalik  can  furnish  250,000 
fighting-men,  and  they  would,  if  well  armed,  be  no  mean 
antagonists.  Dibra  alone  musters  thirty  to  thirty-five 
thousand.  Tlie  independence  which  was  enjoyed  before 
the  fall  of  Scanderbeg  has  been  maintained  by  most  of 
these  districts,  but  it  is  gradually  disappearing  as  the 
means  of  communication  are  improved. 

The  Miriditi  in  particular  acquired,  through  ancient 
stipulations  with  the  Porte,  certain  rights  and  privileges 
not  legally  enjoyed  by  their  neighbors.  They  are  excused 
from  the  payment  of  taxes,  and  they  have  an  hereditary 
chief,  with  the  title  of  Prince  of  Miridit.  During  the 
Crimean  war  that  position  was  held  by  Prince  Bib-Doda, 
and  for  ser-vices  rendered  the  Sultan  conferred  upon  him 
the  rank  and  pay  of  a  general  of  brigade. 

This  prince  was  an  ambitious  and  cunning  statesman, 
and  formed  the  idea  of  uniting  certain  districts  in  the 
Gheghalik  into  a  principality  for  himself.  For  this  pur- 
pose he  went  to  Constantinople  about  the  year  1859,  but 
did  not  succeed  in  advancing  his  views  with  the  Sultan. 
He  afterward  went  to  Paris  with  the  same  object,  and 
would  doubtless  have  been  ready  to  have  introduced  the 
Roman  Catholic  religion  at  the  point  of  the  sword  into  his 


324  TURKEY  IN  E UR OPE. 

principality,  if  it  liad  been  made  large  enough  to  satisfy 
his  ambition ;  but  his  efforts  ended  in  disappointment, 
and  he  had  to  return  to  the  small  limits  of  his  rule,  where 
he  died  a  few  years  ago.  I  believe  the  exemptions  and 
privileges  of  the  Miriditi  have  been  much  curtailed  since 
1867. 

The  Gheghas  are  divided  into  clans  or  tribes,  called 
"  Viss,"  originating  from  the  feudal  system.  These  clans 
are  frequently  at  war  with  each  other,  and  their  blood- 
feuds  are  of  a  most  virulent  nature.  Of  a  refractory  and 
stubborn  spirit,  they  show  little  or  no  inclination  for  re- 
form, and  theu'  habits  of  industry  are  so  desultory  that 
they  hardly  deserve  the  name.  When  not  engaged  in 
border  forays,  they  are  chiefly  occupied  in  making  fire- 
arms and  gunpowder,  herding  and  stealing  large  flocks  of 
sheep  and  cattle,  and  collecting  skins  and  furs.  In  Matt 
a  great  deal  of  gunpowder  is  manufactured  and  sold  to 
the  other  districts.  The  women  manufacture  the  clothing 
for  both  sexes,  which  consists  of  a  coarse  kind  of  flannel. 
The  men  invariably  go  armed,  and  when  cap-d-pied  a 
proud  Ghegha  has  a  long  gun  over  his  shoulder,  two  and 
sometimes  three  pistols,  a  yataghan  in  his  belt,  and  a 
crooked  sabre  by  his  side.  "\'VTien  he  condescends  to  fol- 
low the  plow,  he  still  keeps  his  gun  slung  across  his 
shoulders,  and  is  certainly  a  greater  proficient  with  the 
latter  than  the  former  implement,  and  the  women  are 
more  expert  at  loading  a  rifle  than  threading  a  needle. 
It  is  only  natural  to  expect  and  to  find  that  the  social  con- 
dition of  these  people  is  very  low,  and  this  state  is  fos- 
tered by  the  blood-feuds  which  are  of  such  frequent  oc- 
currence. Shut  out  by  their  mountains  from  strict  con- 
trol, they  stiE.  carry  on  these  acts  of  barbarity  and  ven- 
geance. Blood  for  blood  is  one  of  the  most  marked  char- 
acteristics of  their  nature.  The  ambition  of  the  young 
men  is  to  be  able  to  rival  their  fellows  in  the  number  of 
victims  they  have  sacrificed  in  these  hereditary  feuds, 
which  have  generally  been  excited  by  the  most  frivolous 
causes.    It  is  not  many  years  since,  in  the  district  of 


ALBANIANS.  325 

Jacova,  tlie  disputed  possession  of  a  hare  led  to  a  regular 
pitclied  battle  between  two  "Yiss,"  or  clans,  and  it  was 
not  terminated  until  upward  of  one  hundred  men  had 
been  killed  in  the  fray. 

Very  little  pains  is  taken  by  the  Ottoman  authorities  to 
put  an  end  to  this  savage  state  of  society,  which  finds  a 
parallel  with  that  of  the  Scotch  Highlands  200  years  ago. 
They  feel  that  they  have  not  the  power  to  do  so  effectu- 
ally, without  such  coercion  as  would  at  once  raise  this 
independent  people  into  rebellion,  and  their  warlike  char- 
acter and  the  nature  of  the  country  are  such  powerful 
elements  for  defense  that  the  attempt  would  be  both 
expensive  and  hazardous.  The  experience  of  Montenegro 
is  sufficiently  bitter  to  prevent  the  experiment  being  re- 
peated, and  the  Albanians  still  recognize  no  paramount 
authority. 

The  little  order  or  justice  that  exists  is  administered  by 
the  elders  of  the  clans  and  villages,  but  it  is  of  a  very 
variable  and  precarious  nature.  In  Prisrend,  Jacova,  and 
Ipek,  the  authority  of  the  Porte  is  more  conspicuous, 
and  the  causes  which  have  brought  about  this  result 
should  give  encouragement  to  further  exertions  in  the 
same  direction. 

The  most  prominent  of  these  causes  was  the  transfer- 
ence of  the  head-quarters  of  the  province  from  Uscup  to 
Prisrend,  and  next  to  this  the  establishment  of  military 
head-quarters  at  Pristina.  The  head-quarters  of  the  prov- 
ince was  again  transferred,  and  is  now  at  Monastir,  and 
the  process  of  civilization  was  gradually  making  its  way 
with  some  success,  when  the  troubles  of  the  years  1875, '76 
commenced,  and  the  country  has  now  lapsed  into  its 
former  state. 

A  large  portion  of  the  trade  of  the  country  w^hich  forms 
the  western  half  of  Turkey  is  itinerant,  and  the  Glieghas 
take  a  prominent  part  in  the  work.  This  would  lead  one 
to  suppose  that  they  are  naturally  an  industrious  people, 
but  I  cannot  help  thinking,  from  my  own  observation  and 
inquiries,  that  most  of  these  itinerant  workmen  from  Al- 


326  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

bania,  wlio  are  designated  by  the  generic  term  of 
Gheghas,  emanate  from  tlie  Bulgarian  colonies,  whicli  are 
established  in  many  parts  of  those  mountains,  and  es- 
pecially in  Dibra.  A  certain  number  of  the  so-called 
Gheghas  in  the  diiferent  districts  descend  annually  from 
the  mountains  during  the  autumn,  and  proceed  to  the 
towns,  seaports,  villages,  and  farms  in  Roumelia  in  search 
of  employment  as  masons,  carpenters,  bakers,  shepherds, 
and  servants,  and  they  all  return  in  the  spring  to  their 
homes,  bringing  with  them  their  earnings. 

These  itinerant  laborers  are  called  "kourbetgees,"  or 
"absentees,"  and  they  comprise  both  Mohammedans  and 
Christians.  From  the  province  of  Uscup  alone  10,000 
men  are  included  in  this  class,  and  from  the  other  dis- 
tricts in  Albania  from  30,000  to  40,000  follow  the  same 
calling. 

The  average  annual  gain  of  a  "kourbetgee"  is  com- 
puted at  £12  sterling,  so  that  taking  their  number  at 
50,000  an  annual  sum  of  £600,000  in  hard  cash  is  ab- 
stracted from  Roumelia  and  carried  to  Albania,  manifestly 
to  the  detriment  of  the  former  and  benefit  of  the  latter 
country,  which  also  gains  by  the  neAv  ideas  and  experi- 
ences imported  from  the  more  civilized  plains. 

Among  the  Christians  of  the  Xorthern  districts  are 
some  who  i)rofess  the  Roman  Catholic  faith,  and  are  said 
to  number  27,000.  They  are  called  Latins,  and  for  the 
most  part  follow  agTicultural  iDursuits  and  trade,  but 
whether  from  the  discipline  of  their  faith,  or  from  chance, 
they  are  said  to  be  better  in  social  condition  than  either 
the  Mohammedans  or  followers  of  the  Greek  Church,  and 
they  enjoy  greater  security.  Besides  these  Latins  there 
are  a  few  small  colonies  who  have  separated  from  their 
co-religionists  in  consequence  of  having  assumed  an  outer 
garment  of  Islamism,  while  their  inward  faith  is  Christian. 
This  they  did  to  escape  the  persecution  of  the  native  Mo- 
hammedan beys,  and  they  therefore  practise  Moham- 
medan rites  in  public  and  Christian  in  private  life,  and 
bide  their  time.    The  remainder  of  the  Christian  popula- 


ALBANIANS.  397 

tion  of  the  Gheghalik  may  be  classed  under  two  denomi- 
nations, the  Bulgarians  and  the  Rascians,  both  followers 
of  the  Greek  Church,  but  the  former  are  now  inclining  to 
the  revived  Bulgarian  Church. 

The  Rascians  are  probably  Slavonians  who  have  over- 
flowed into  Albania.  They  are  a  brave  and  hardy  race, 
occupying  the  mountains  near  the  Servian  frontier,  and 
have  all  the  physical  characteristics  of  a  mixture  by  in- 
termarriage of  the  Slavonic  and  Skipetar  blood.  Among 
this  patchwork  of  ancient  nations  the  Bulgarians  stand 
out  here,  as  everywhere,  as  the  most  peaceful  and  indus- 
trious, but  they  are  more  servile  than  their  neighbors,  and 
perhaps  even  more  superstitious.  The  mountain  air, 
bracing  climate,  and  independence  has  given  them  a 
greater  air  of  freedom  than  their  compatriots  in  other 
parts  of  Turkey,  but  still  they  are  far  behind  both 
Skipetar  and  Rascians  in  that  bold  and  careless  manner 
so  common  to  mountaineers. 

In  Albania,  as  in  almost  every  other  part  of  Turkey,  the 
wandering  gipsy  is  also  found,  and  in  the  towns  the  thrifty 
Jew. 

The  Toskas,  as  they  are  now  called,  of  the  south,  have 
not  only  different  physical  characteristics,  but  also  differ 
in  habit  fi'om  their  northern  neighbors  and  mountaineers. 
They  are  generally  fair  ;  and;  as  they  occupy  most  of  the 
plains  and  also  the  sea-coast  toward  the  south-west,  it 
might  at  fu^st  be  supposed  that  this  diiference  in  shade 
might  be  explained  by  intermixture  of  foreign  blood,  but 
it  can  hardly  be  so,  since  some  of  those  districts  which  are 
farthest  from  the  coast  and  the  most  out  of  the  way  have 
the  faii'est  inhabitants.  "V\niether  the  fair  skin  and  blue 
eyes  of  the  Toskas  are  inherited  from  the  ancient  lUyrians, 
and  the  tawny  skin  and  dark  eyes  of  the  Gheghas  are  the 
result  of  the  influx  of  Slavonic  blood,  may  be  a  question 
for  adepts  in  ethnology  to  solve.  The  contact  of  the  Tos- 
kas with  the  Greeks  from  the  proximity  of  the  two  coun- 
tries, or  rather,  I  should  say,  their  having  been  pushed 
within  their  present  limits  by  Greek  pressure,  has  to  a 


328  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

certain  degree  affected  tlieir  manners  and  habits,  and  their 
occupation  of  most  of  the  lower  and  fertile  plains  has  nat- 
urally a  powerful  influence  in  producing  a  difference  to 
their  national  neighbors  the  Gheghas.  In  Turkey  most  of 
the  servants  used  as  guards,  such  as  "gardes  champetres " 
in  the  country  and  "  cavasses  "  (a  sort  of  military  messen- 
ger and  attendant)  in  the  towns,  are  Arnaouts  (Albanians), 
and  it  is  generally  the  Mohammedan  portion  of  that  com- 
munity which  undertakes  such  service.  When  once  they 
feel  confidence  in  their  employers  they  become  highly 
attached  to  them,  and,  as  a  rule,  are  faithful,  honest,  and 
sober  to  a  degree.  They  would  consider  it  a  mere  act  of 
common  duty  to  sacrifice  their  lives  for  their  master's 
interests,  and  many  cases  could  be  cited  of  their  having 
done  so ;  but  easy  communication  is  becoming  evil  com- 
munication, and  corrupting  this  noble  trait  in  their  char- 
acter now  that  they  are  brought  so  much  into  contact  with 
the  Frank  element,  which  for  purposes  of  trade  and  profit 
is  pushing  its  way  into  the  country. 

Albania  has  been  of  infinite  service  to  Turkey  in  supply- 
ing her  with  some  of  the  bravest  troops  in  the  world  in 
time  of  war ;  and  although  in  the  present  day  they  could 
not  safely  be  used  against  regular  troops  in  the  open  field, 
they  would,  if  given  arms  of  precision,  and  taught  how  to 
use  them,  be  invaluable  for  mountain  warfare.  They  are 
generally  excellent  shots  at  a  short  range,  and  learn  any- 
thing connected  with  a  gun  with  great  facUity.  A  hun- 
dred thousand  of  such  men  scattered  over  the  Balkan 
Mountains  would  elude  for  a  long  time  the  grasp  of  any 
regular  troops,  and  would  make  it  extremely  difficult,  if 
not  impossible,  for  an  enemy  to  maintain  an  army  south 
of  that  range  of  mountains. 

In  the  campaign  of  1829  the  Russian  army  would  prob- 
ably have  been  completely  crushed  by  the  Albanians,  who 
were  advancing  under  the  Pasha  of  Scodra,  had  not  the 
hurried  and  disgraceful  peace  been  concluded  by  the  treaty 
of  Adrianople. 

Moltke  gives  it  as  his  opinion  that  at  that  time  the 


ALBANIANS.  329 

Russians  could  not  have  put  more  tlian  15,000  men  in  line 
of  battle,  and  many  of  these  were  debilitated  by  sickness. 
Had  the  brave  Gheghas  not  given  way  to  those  dilatory 
habits  so  common  to  mountaineers,  it  would  have  placed 
the  Pasha  of  Scodra  earlier  on  the  scene,  and  they  might 
have  materially  influenced  the  future  history  of  Turkey. 


CHAPTER  xym. 

FROM  EILO  TO  SALONICA. 

Monks  of  Eilo  Monastir— The  Call  to  Prayers— The  Abbot— A  "Monk 
Scratcher" — Monastery  Farms— A  Bulgarian  Doctor— The  River  Stry- 
mon — Perim  Dagh — The  Ancient  Agrianes — A  Gontre-temps — Pheasant 
Shooting— Plains  of  Seres— Heavy  Traffic— Wrestling  Match— A  Gipsy 
Champion — Gipsy  Immigration  to  Europe— Stopped  by  a  Turkish  Guard 
— Lake  Besik,  or  Ancient  Bolbe — Reported  Ruins — Roman  Roads. 

THE  Moliammedan  natives  about  Rilo  Monastir  have 
a  laudable  superstition  that  bad  luck  will  attend 
any  one  who  attempts  to  kill  a  red  deer,  and  it  is  a  belief 
which  should  be  encouraged  by  all  sportsmen.  They 
were,  therefore,  not  at  all  surprised  at  my  accident,  but 
only  adduced  it  as  fresh  evidence  in  support  of  their  con- 
firmed belief. 

As  soon  as  I  was  sufficiently  recovered  I  started  for 
Salonica,  and  laid  out  my  journeys  so  as  to  accomplish 
the  distance  in  five  days'  ride  by  the  valley  of  the 
Strymon.  I  had  seen  a  good  deal  of  the  monks  while 
living  in  the  monastery,  and  was  very  favorably  impressed 
with  some  of  them,  especially  an  old  literary  character, 
who  had  an  excellent  library  of  ancient  Bulgarian  books, 
from  which  much  historical  information  might  be  ob- 
tained. He  spent  much  of  his  time  in  compiling  a  most 
elaborate  index  to  the  Bulgarian  Bible,  which  was  to  give 
every  word  contained  in  it,  and  references  to  passages  in 
every  part  of  the  sacred  book  where  each  word  was  to  be 
found.  He  had  been  employed  at  this  work  for  twenty 
years,  and  had  arrived  as  far  as  the  letter  G-  of  the  alpha- 
bet, so  that  there  is  not  much  hope  of  his  being  able  to 
finish  his  labors.  The  monks  attend  chapel  twice  during 
every  night,  both  summer  and  winter.     The  method  of 

330 


TO  PBAYERS!    TO  PRATERS!  331 

calling  to  prayers  is  both  curious  and  effective.  One  of 
the  younger  monks,  in  full  robes,  stands  in  the  center  of 
the  court,  holding  in  his  left  hand  a  flat  well-dried  piece 
of  wood,  about  ten  feet  long  and  six  inches  wide,  by  one 
thick,  and  in  his  right  hand  a  small  hammer.  With  great 
solemnity  he  strikes  the  wood  once,  and  then  pauses  for 
fully  a  minute,  when  he  gives  another  blow.  The  rapidity 
of  the  blows  increases  by  arithmetical  progression,  until 
it  becomes  a  continuous  roll,  like  that  upon  a  drum,  the 
monk  walking  about  in  a  slow  and  dignified  manner  in 
the  meanwhile,  until  he  ends  the  roll-call  abruptly,  and 
follows  it  by  one  sharp  and  finishing  blow. 

There  are  also  several  services  during  the  day,  which, 
as  well  as  those  at  night,  are  sometimes  ushered  in  by  a 
sudden  clanging  and  pealing  of  the  great  bells. 

The  cloisters,  which  run  round  three  of  the  inner  sides 
of  the  quadrangle  which  forms  the  monastery,  are  780  feet 
in  length.  The  present  building  is  comparatively  new,  as 
the  old  one  was  burned  down  about  fifty  years  ago. 

The  numerous  arches  which  form  the  cloisters,  and  also 
the  three  tiers  of  galleries  above  them,  the  higlily-decor- 
ated  church,  the  quaint  old  beKry,  the  ancient  tower  of 
King  Peter,  the  aged  monks,  and  the  majestic  mountains 
looking  down  upon  all,  form  a  scene  which  is  never  to  be 
forgotten. 

The  abbot  and  some  of  the  principal  monks  had  left  the 
monastery  several  days  before  my  departure  for  a  small 
monastery  and  farm  which  they  possessed  in  the  low 
country,  about  twelve  miles  away,  and  as  it  was  in  my 
road,  they  begged  me  to  call  en  passant. 

From  the  result  of  my  accident  I  could  no  longer  revel 
in  the  lovely  scenery  we  now  passed  through,  and  I  left 
this  beautiful  country  with  a  sigh. 

It  was  now  the  month  of  October,  and  the  vintage  sea- 
son had  commenced.  As  we  arrived  at  the  small  monas- 
tery I  was  much  struck  by  the  similarity  of  the  scene  to 
some  of  the  descriptions  in  Sir  Walter  Scott's  novels. 

I  found  the  old  abbot  in  a  large  and  lofty  cellar,  full  of 


332  TURRET  IN  EUROPE. 

great  vats.  Two  monks  stood  by  Ms  side  with  pen  and 
paper  to  clieck  the  panniers  of  gi-apes  as  they  were  brought 
in,  while  the  steward,  with  his  great  keys  hanging  from 
his  girdle,  superintended  the  treading  of  the  grapes.  Out- 
side there  was  a  busy  scene :  sheep  and  oxen  were  being 
slain  for  the  village  feast,  women  and  children  were  flitting 
about  in  their  bright  costumes,  and  strings  of  horses  and 
mules,  laden  with  luscious  grapes,  were  wending  their  way 
along  the  hills  and  over  the  bridge  to  the  cellar. 

I  was  presented  with  a  curious  instrument,  connected 
with  another  of  these  monasteries,  in  the  form  of  a  wooden 
spoon  about  a  yard  long.  It  would  puzzle  the  reader  to 
guess  its  use,  as  the  bowl  was  not  hollowed  out  and  pre- 
sented a  corrugated  appearance  on  each  side — besides 
which  the  end  of  the  handle  was  also  indented  so  as  to 
make  a  number  of  rough  surfaces. 

Truly  these  old  monks  are  luxurious  individuals ;  as 
their  farms  and  vineyards  provide  comfort  for  the  inward, 
these  wooden  spoons  are  designed  to  supply  it  for  the  out- 
ward man ;  for  I  afterwards  learned  that  this  eccentric 
spoon  was  nothing  less  than  a  "Monk  Scratcher;"  and 
judging  from  my  own  experience  of  the  activity  of  the 
insects  of  the  country,  I  am  not  suriDrised  at  the  ingenuity 
of  these  old  ecclesiastics  in  providing  an  antidote.  I  can 
commend  this  implement  to  all  intending  travelers  in 
Turkey ! 

The  farms  of  the  monastery  are  very  extensive,  and  are 
admirably  managed,  both  in  the  low  country  and  in  the 
mountain  sheep-farms.  The  abbot  informed  me  that  only 
four  years  before,  the  district  had  been  infested  by  brig- 
ands, and  that  it  was  not  safe  to  go  half  a  mile  from  the 
monastery  without  a  guard,  but  that  now  (1874)  you 
might  go  anywhere  in  safety. 

After  taking  luncheon  with  the  monks  I  bid  them  fare- 
well, and  continued  my  journey  to  Djumaa,  a  large  and 
thriving  Bulgarian  town,  populated  by  Mohammedans 
and  Christians.  There  is  an  excellent  highway  road  lead- 
ing from  Djumaa  to  Dubnitza.     These  roads  are  admir- 


BAROAmiNO.  333 

ably  made,  and  quite  equal  tlie  largest  and  best  we  have 
in  England ;  but  tliey  are  seldom  repaired,  and  conse- 
quently become  impassable  after  a  few  years.  I  liave  de- 
scribed tlie  government  of  this  district  in  my  chapter  on 
Bulgaria.  There  was  a  young  doctor  of  that  nationality 
in  the  town,  who  had  been  educated  at  the  Turkish  Medi- 
cal College  at  Constantinople  ;  he  insisted  upon  prescrib- 
ing for  me,  whether  I  would  or  not,  and  medicines  for  in- 
ternal as  well  as  external  use  soon  arrived,  but  I  did  not 
feel  suflBcient  confidence  in  his  skill  to  make  use  of  them. 

I  fortunately  met  a  keradjee  (pack-animal  owner),  who 
was  returning  empty-handed  to  Salonica,  and  I  there- 
fore made  a  bargain  with  him  to  accompany  us,  and  carry 
my  baggage  the  whole  way. 

All  bargains  in  Turkey  occupy  much  time,  and  it  was 
two  hours  before  an  agreement  could  be  arrived  at.  My 
new  friend  was  a  wild  and  jovial  individual,  who  looked 
very  like  a  brigand,  and  from  what  I  afterward  heard,  I 
rather  think  he  was  one.  I  slung  my  hammock  between 
two  of  the  verandah  posts  of  the  khan,  and  thus  slept  un- 
tormented.  Pano,  of  course,  would  have  his  pet  bed, 
and,  as  usual,  spent  half  the  night  in  tumbling  down  and 
putting  it  together  again  ;  in  fact,  I  believe  he  would  have 
been  quite  lonely  ^vithout  his  nightly  occupation  ;  and  it 
was  a  "shake  down "  in  every  sense  of  the  word. 

Our  route  now  lay  along  a  fair  road  by  the  river  Stry- 
mon,  which  here  varies  in  width  from  fifty  to  a  hundred 
yards.  The  left  bank  is  generally  high,  and  the  right 
bank  low,  but  the  river  is  fordable  in  some  places  when 
not  in  flood. 

On  our  left  were  the  western  Rhodope  mountains,  with 
Perim  Dagh  towering  7,475  feet  above  the  sea.  On  the 
right  were  hills,  which  appeared  covered  with  a  dry  kind 
of  bush,  and  the  whole  country  began  to  assume  a  wild 
and  dreary  look.  The  mountains  had  a  dried-up  appear- 
ance, and  the  scenery  was  totally  different  from  the  Rilo 
Dagh. 

I  mentioned  in  a  former  chapter  that  it  is  not  at  all  im- 


334  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

probable  that  some  of  the  wild  tribes  which  are  found  in 
the  mountainous  districts,  and  whose  origin  is  obscure, 
may  be  remnants  of  the  aborigines,  who  retired  to  these 
mountain  fastnesses,  and  have  there  dwelt  in  comparative 
security  through  the  many  ages  which  have  passed. 

I  am  inclined  to  that  opinion  by  one  special  example  in 
the  people  called  Erghne,  who  now  dwell  among  these 
very  Rhodope  mountains  which  I  was  passing,  and  which 
are,  I  have  no  doubt,  the  Agrianes  mentioned  by  Herod- 
otus. 

These  people  were  converted  to  Mohammedanism  about 
a  hundred  years  ago,  but  they  nevertheless  still  preserve 
some  of  their  primitive  customs,  one  of  which  consists  in 
general  meetings  of  both  sexes  on  certain  days  in  the 
year,  and  community  of  wives.  Both  Herodotus  and 
Strabo  mention  a  tribe  of  Thracians  north  of  the  Cresto- 
nians  who  practised  polygamy  to  an  indefinite  extent,  and 
as  this  agrees  with  the  locality  inhabited  by  the  Erghne 
in  the  present  day,  they  are  probably  synonymous. 

That  night  we  pitched  the  tent  close  to  the  bank  of  the 
Strymon,  and  were  off  at  daybreak  the  next  morning. 

We  had  a  very  dreary  ride  in  a  hot  sun  through  a 
glaring  and  but  loartially  populated  country,  until  evening 
approached,  when  we  halted  in  a  rich  plain  full  of  fields 
of  Indian  corn,  nearly  ready  for  harvest.  We  slept  in 
the  veranda  of  a  khan,  and  next  morning  had  a  little 
contre-temps  through  the  lawless  propensities  of  our  wild 
Bulgarian  keradjee  driver,  although  I  did  not  know  that 
he  was  to  blame  at  the  time.  When  we  were  about  to 
start,  an  indignant  Turk  farmer,  accompanied  by  many  of 
Ms  people,  appeared  on  the  scene  of  action,  and  seized  our 
pack-animals,  saying  that  we  should  not  leave  until  we 
had  appeared  before  the  mudir  (magistrate)  of  the  district. 
The  charge  was  that  all  the  pack-animals  and  horses,  fif- 
teen in  number,  had  willfully  been  turned  into  his  field  of 
Indian  corn  to  graze  during  the  night.  Our  keradjee  swore 
loudly  that  the  damage,  if  there  was  any— which  he 
doubted — had  not  been  done  by  our  horses,  but  by  others 


A  LAWLESS  EERADJEK  335 

who  were  picketed  near,  and  that  the  charge  was  only 
trumped  up  to  extort  backshish.  The  Turk,  however,  had 
possession  of  our  baggage,  and  said  we  should  not  go 
until  justice  was  done ;  and  as  I  judged  from  the  man' s 
manner  that  he  was  speaking  the  truth,  I  requested  to  be 
led  to  the  damaged  field. 

There  was  no  doubt  about  the  fact.  There  lay  a  good 
acre  of  splendid  Indian  com  trampled,  eaten,  and  de- 
stroyed. But  as  our  keradjee  declared  that  our  horses 
were  not  the  culprits,  and  even  showed  me  where  he  had 
kept  them  all  night,  and  as  some  other  keradjees  were 
now  hurrying  away  from  the  khan,  whom  he  confidently 
asserted  to  be  the  real  offenders,  I  accepted  his  evidence, 
and  informed  the  Turk  of  my  conclusion. 

He  was  inclined  to  resist,  but  I  called  up  Pano,  John, 
and  the  keradjee,  took  possession  of  our  animals,  and 
continued  my  journey. 

Two  days  afterward  I  found  that  I  had  been  deceived, 
and  that  this  scoundrel  of  a  keradjee  was  boasting  of  hov/ 
he  had  fed  all  his  animals  for  nothing  during  the  whole 
journey  by  trespassing  on  the  fields,  and  he  was  especially 
delighted  at  the  manner  in  which  he  had  robbed  the  Turk. 
Unfortunately,  I  did  not  know  the  sufferer's  name,  and 
had  no  means  of  sending  him  any  recompense  for  his  loss. 

On  this,  the  fourth  day  from  leaving  Rilo,  we  were  still 
accompanied  by  the  river  Strymon,  which  now  led  through 
a  broad  gap  in  the  mountains  and  then  emerged  on  to  the 
extensive  and  fertile  plains  of  Seres.  I  could  not  judge 
of  the  scenery ;  but  from  the  little  I  could  see,  I  should 
say  that  the  views  here  must  be  very  beautiful,  as  the 
plain  is  rich  in  villages  and  surrounded  by  the  Rhodope 
range,  which  stretches  into  it  here  and  there  in  lofty  pro- 
montories. 

I  passed  several  natives  who  were  pheasant  shooting 
among  the  bushes  which  here  flanked  the  river ;  and 
judging  from  the  number  of  shots,  they  must  have  found 
plenty  of  birds. 

I  also  met  a  mounted  Turk,  who  was  coursing  with  the 


336  TURKET  IN  EUROPE. 

greyhound  common  to  this  part  of  Turkey.  They  are 
similar  to  the  Persian  variety  of  this  dog,  and  they  are 
very  fleet  and  hardy,  \vith  great  staying  powers,  but  the 
tuft  behind  the  ears  would  preclude  breeding  from  them 
in  England. 

Large  quantities  of  cotton  are  cultivated  upon  the  Seres 
plain,  and  in  favorable  years  it  is  a  paying  crop.  The 
traffic  upon  this  road  from  DJumaa  to  Salonica — which  in 
some  parts  is  impassable  for  wheeled  carriages — ^is  carried 
on  by  means  of  pack-animals,  and  the  amount  of  goods 
which  pass  to  and  fro  must  be  large,  for  we  met  many 
caravans  during  the  whole  length  of  the  journey.  The 
goods  consisted  principally  of  cotton,  cheese,  butter, 
wool,  grain,  skins,  and  tobacco,  all  passing  toward  Seres 
and  Salonica  ;  and  paraffin,  rum,  and  manufactured  cotton 
goods  were  being  carried  in  the  opposite  direction. 

I  passed  through  a  very  fine  town  called  Barakli-D jumaa, 
in  the  middle  of  the  plain,  and  inhabited  principally  by 
Christian  Bulgarians.  A  great  wrestling  match  was  going 
on  just  outside  the  town,  and  I  stopped  to  witness  the 
sport. 

A  circle  about  thirty  yards  in  diameter  was  formed  by 
the  men,  women,  and  children — Turks,  Bulgarians,  and  a 
plentiful  supply  of  gypsies — all  sitting  closely  packed  to- 
gether round  the  circumference.  There  was  the  usual 
accompaniment  of  a  gypsy  band,  composed  of  a  drum  and 
a  clarionet,  which  was  kept  going  continuously. 

A  competitor,  stripped  to  the  waist,  steps  into  the  ring 
and  walks  round  with  a  grand  air  as  he  displays  his 
muscular  frame  to  the  admiring  gaze  of  the  bystanders. 
Presently  his  antagonist  enters  the  ring,  and  both  com- 
petitors shake  hands  in  a  good-natured  way,  and  a  little 
laughing  and  chaffing  goes  on.  They  then  commence 
walking  round,  every  now  and  then  turning  in  to  shake 
hands  again,  until  suddenly  one  pounces  upon  the  other 
to  get  the  "catch,"  and  the  struggle  commences.  No 
kicking  is  allowed,  and  the  throw  must  lay  the  vanquished 
man  upon  his  back,  so  that  both  shoulder-blades  touch 


A  STRUGGLE.  337 

tlie  ground  at  the  same  time.  The  champion  was  a  bniiy 
Bulgarian  of  herculean  strength,  when,  at  the  invitation  of 
some  black-eyed  gypsy  girls,  a  fine  but  slim  young  fellow 
of  their  tribe  entered  the  lists  against  hipa  ;  but,  although 
considering  his  youth  he  made  a  gallant  struggle,  a  quick 
throw  laid  him  sprawling  on  his  back,  to  the  evident  cha- 
grin and  disappointment  of  the  gypsy  women.  Their  eyes 
flashed  with  anger  as  they  now  held  a  hurried  consulta- 
tion, when  off  started  a  very  pretty  girl,  evidently  bound 
upon  some  errand.  She  soon  returned  with,  one  of  the 
most  splendid  specimens  of  humanity  I  ever  saw.  If,  as 
is  asserted,  there  were  princes  and  dukes  among  the 
ancient  tribe  of  gypsies  who  emigrated  to  Europe,  this 
must  certainly  have  been  a  descendant  of  one  of  them. 

His  fair  escort  pushed  him  into  the  ring  with  an  air  of 
pride  and  confidence,  as  much  as  to  say,  "Now  you  shall 
see  what  a  gypsy  can  do."  The  young  man  was  about 
twenty-five  years  of  age,  and  nearly  six  feet  high,  with  a 
handsome,  aristocratic,  and  cheery  countenance ;  and  as 
he  took  off  his  jacket  and  handed  it  to  his  fair  one,  and 
thus  stood  stripped  to  the  waist,  there  was  a  buzz  of  admi- 
ration from  the  whole  crowd.  He  was  slightly  made,  but 
all  was  sinew.  Laughingly,  and  half  modestly,  he  shook 
his  powerful  antagonist  by  the  hand,  and  then  the  walk 
round  commenced,  the  young  gypsy  talking  and  laughing 
all  the  time.  It  seemed  as  though  neither  liked  to  be  the 
first  to  begin  ;  when  suddenly  the  Bulgarian  turned  sharp 
upon  his  antagonist,  and  tried  a  favorite  catch,  but  quick 
as  lightning  the  lithe  figure  of  the  gypsy  eluded  the 
grasp,  and  a  sigh  of  relief  went  up  from  his  clan.  The 
excitement  was  now  intense,  and  the  young  girl  perfectly 
quivered  with  nervous  anxiety  as  she  watched  every  move- 
ment of  her  swain.  She  would  have  made  a  splendid 
picture  !  They  were  stiU  walking  round,  and  it  seemed  as 
though  the  struggle  would  never  begin,  when,  lo  !  a  simul- 
taneous cry  went  forth  from  the  whole  crowd,  as  the 
great  Bulgarian  lay  sprawling,  and  half  stunned,  upon  the 
ground. 


338  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE 

The  movements  of  the  gypsy  had  been  so  quick,  that  it 
was  impossible  to  say  how  the  throw  was  done,  but  the 
Bulgarian  was  turned  almost  a  somersault  in  the  air,  and 
came  down  with  a  heavy  thud.  The  young  champion 
shook  him  by  the  hand,  lifted  the  heavy  man  high  into 
the  air,  and  then  set  him  on  his  feet. 

The  face  of  the  young  girl,  as  she  handed  back  her  hero 
his  Jacket,  was  pleasant  to  look  upon.  Lucky  man  !  As 
she  took  him  by  the  hand  and  led  him  away  to  wherever 
he  came  from,  I  began  to  think  there  might  be  a  worse 
fate  than  being  a  gypsy. 

These  Tchinganes,  as  they  are  called,  are  widely  scat- 
tered over  the  whole  of  Turkey  in  Europe,  and  their  num- 
ber has  been  estimated  at  200,000. 

They  are  of  Hindoo  origin,  and  of  the  same  race  as  their 
namesakes  in  England  and  other  parts  of  Europe ;  but 
from  their  closer  contact  with  the  East  they  preserve  in 
Turkey  more  of  their  oriental  appearance  and  character. 
Although  they  always  maintained  a  certain  amount  of 
mystery  as  to  the  quarter  from  which  they  emigrated,  it 
is  generally  supposed  that  their  appearance  in  Europe  was 
coeval  with  the  conquests  of  Timour  the  Tartar,  and  that 
they  were  one  of  the  tribes  of  Hindostan  pushed  out  by 
the  force  of  his  triumphant  armies. 

At  first  their  ancestors  stated  that  they  had  come  from 
Lower  Egypt,  but  as  their  ideas  of  geography  were  prob- 
ably vague,  the  direction  only  of  their  advent  may  have 
been  meant. 

Among  the  earliest  immigrants  were  men  who  claimed 
to  have  been  dukes  and  princes  in  their  own  country,  and 
there  were  others  of  the  lowest  ranks.  They  stated  that 
they  had  wandered  from  their  country  to  do  penance  for 
their  sins. 

Their  nomad  habits,  which  seem  to  be  a  part  of  their  very 
nature,  would  certainly  point  to  their  having  belonged  to 
the  Turanian  race,  but  their  language  and  appearance 
have  placed  them  among  the  Arian  family  of  men. 

As  they  were  when  they  first  entered  Europe,  so  are 


THE  GYPSIES.  339 

they  now,  wanderers  over  the  face  of  the  earth,  here  to- 
day and  there  to-morrow  ;  but  in  Turkey  there  are  a  few 
exceptions  to  this  rule,  who  lead  a  stationary  life,  as 
blacksmiths,  or  herders  of  cattle  on  country  farms.  As 
laborers  they  are  not  to  be  depended  upon,  except  in 
the  one  art  of  ditching,  at  which  they  are  adepts. 

A  fine,  handsome  race  they  are  also  very  hardy ;  and 
sometimes  in  passing  one  of  their  encampments,  even  in 
the  depth  of  winter,  with  the  ground  hard  with  frost,  a 
whole  bevy  of  children  will  rush  out  stark  naked,  and 
clamor  for  backshish. 

The  adults  wear  but  light  clothing,  and  it  is  the  same 
for  both  winter  and  summer.  Brilliant  colors  are  much 
in  fashion,  and  set  off  the  sometimes  handsome  faces  of 
the  girls  ;  but  their  beauty  soon  fades  from  the  hard  life 
they  lead. 

As  in  ancient  times,  they  still  preserve  their  love  of 
music,  and  the  gypsy  drum  and  clarionet  form  an  accom- 
paniment to  almost  every  village  festival,  whether  Chris- 
tian or  Mohammedan.  Although  they  usually  intermarry 
among  their  owti  tribe,  the  rule  is  not  strictly  adhered  to, 
and,  according  as  they  are  Christian  or  Mohammedan, 
they  vaR  sometimes  take  to  wife  some  fascinating  giii 
from  either  community. 

The  great  majority  are  found  among  the  followers  of 
Mahomet,  but  a  few  here  and  there  adopt  the  tenets  of 
the  Greek  Church  ;  and  I  regret  to  say  that  the  morality 
of  the  Christians  is  of  a  lower  order  than  that  of  the  rival 
creed. 

The  principal  characteristic  of  the  gypsy  in  Turkey,  as 
elsewhere,  is  petty  theft.  He  will  steal  anything  which 
comes  in  his  way,  and  he  has  a  particular  fondness  for 
poultry.  A  goose  is  irresistible ;  and,  as  those  birds  are 
plentiful  in  Turkey,  a  gypsy  family  may  be  tracked,  some- 
what lilve  a  paper  chase,  by  remnants  of  down  and  fea- 
thers. 

I  was  so  attracted  by  the  wrestling  scene  at  Barakli- 
Djumaa,  that  I  lost  much  time,  and  had  to  push  on  quick- 


340  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

ly,  in  order  that  we  miglit  reach  a  klian,  perched  up  in  a 
small  village  among  the  mountains  which  lay  between 
us  and  Salonica. 

We  had  to  cross  the  river  Strymon,  or  Struma,  which  is 
here  quite  a  hundred  and  twenty  yards  broad,  and  is 
spanned  by  a  rather  antiquated  wooden  bridge,  with  a 
Turkish  guard-house  at  the  western  entrance. 

I  did  not  engage  a  zaptieh  after  leaving  DJumaa,  because 
the  keradjee  was  well  acquainted  with  the  road,  and  acted 
as  guide.  He  was  leading  the  way  when  we  crossed  the 
bridge,  and  the  moment  he  had  arrived  at  the  other  side, 
one  of  the  guard  stepped  out,  seized  his  horse  by  the 
bridle,  and  took  the  man  prisoner.  I  rode  forward  and 
stopped  what  I  considered  a  very  arbitrary  act.  But  the 
zaptieh  said  the  man  must  be  imprisoned ;  that  only  a 
week  before  he  had  half  murdered  a  shepherd  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Seres,  and  robbed  him  of  all  he  possessed, 
and  that  they  had  been  looking  out  for  him  for  some  time. 

Wow  I  had  engaged  the  man  at  Djumaa,  which  was  a 
four  days'  journey,  so  that  I  did  not  see  how  he  could 
possibly  have  been  at  Seres  only  a  week  before.  How- 
ever, here  I  was  face  to  face  with  the  agent  of  the  law,  and 
the  position  was  awkward,  for  we  were  dependent  upon 
this  man  to  guide  us  over  the  mountains.  I  therefore  told 
the  guide  that  I  could  not  allow  them  to  seize  the  kerad- 
jee, as  he  was  now  in  my  employ,  and  engaged  to  take  me 
to  Salonica,  but  that  if  they  would  send  a  zaptieh  with  me 
I  would  take  care  that  the  man  was  brought  to  trial,  if  the 
charge  could  be  proved  against  him. 

On  my  pointing  out  the  discrepancy  as  to  time  and 
locality,  they  said  the  keradjee  might  go  on,  although 
they  were  sure  he  was  the  man. 

All  these  delays  had  occupied  valuable  time,  and  it  was 
now  three  o'clock,  and  we  had  a  broad  range  of  mountains 
to  surmount. 

We  soon  turned  sharp  to  the  right  from  these  rich 
plains,  and  commenced  the  steep  ascent  of  hills  which  are 
characteristic  of  so  many  parts  of  Turkey — steep  sides  and 


A  SUIiXEN  CITY.  341 

rounded  tops,  mostly  covered  with  an  oak  scrub,  growing 
in  a  good  soil,  composed  of  mica  schist,  with  much  oxide 
of  iron,  and  here  and  there  a  patch  of  syenite  cropping 
out.  But  the  oak  scrub  in  Macedonia  is  of  a  different 
character  to  that  I  had  seen  in  other  parts  of  the  country. 
A  low  bush,  with  a  very  small  prickly  leaf  of  a  dark  olive- 
green,  it  more  resembles  a  holly  than  an  oak.  Yet  it  will 
grow  to  a  small  tree,  if  it  is  allowed  the  chance,  and  in 
that  form  so  much  resembles  the  olive  at  a  short  distance, 
that  travelers  have  been  deceived  by  the  resemblance,  and 
have  attributed  a  milder  winter  climate  to  this  jpart  of 
Turkey  than  it  deserves. 

There  are  many  of  these  trees  on  the  hiUs  near  the  Lake 
of  Besik,  in  this  neighborhood,  and  Clarke  describes  them 
as  groves  of  olives,  and  he  may  well  be  pardoned  the  mis- 
take, for  they  exactly  resemble  that  tree  at  a  distance. 
The  acorn  is  very  large,  and,  unlike  the  valonia,  it  is  out 
of  all  proportion  to  the  calyx.  The  inhabitants  on  the 
northern  shore  of  this  Lake  of  Besik  (ancient  Bolbe),  who 
are  nearly  all  Youruks  or  Turcomans,  assert  that  there 
are  ruins  of  an  ancient  town  at  the  bottom  of  the  lake,  and 
that  the  walls  and  pillars  of  the  buildings  can  be  distinct- 
ly seen  when  the  water  is  clear.  I  was  much  puzzled  by 
this  assertion,  and  as,  on  an  after  occasion,  I  rode  along 
the  road  by  the  water-side — the  road  on  which  part  of  the 
army  of  Xerxes  had  once  marched — I  tried  to  fathom  the 
history  of  this  sunken  city.  The  most  ancient  of  our  his- 
torians— geology — seemed  to  point  to  this  lake  having 
existed  in  a  probably  larger  form  for  many  ages.  Who, 
then,  could  these  mermaids  be  that  built  their  houses 
among  the  fishes  ?  Why,  what  is  that  away  there  on  the 
flat  gTound  to  my  right,  where  once  the  waters  of  the  lake 
were  probably  spreading  ?  Yes,  the  ruins  of  a  city !  and 
grand  buildings  they  must  have  been,  judging  by  the 
height  of  the  walls  and  columns.  There  they  are,  stand- 
ing up  quite  alone  on  the  flat  ground,  with  no  rocks  or 
other  buildings  near  them.  But  do  not  pass  on,  O  reader, 
under  this  impression ;  ride  close  up  to  the  ancient  town, 


342  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

and  you  will  find  tliat  it — and  probably  tlie  mermaids' 
home  at  the  bottom  of  the  lake — are  far  more  ancient  than 
you  had  sui)posed,  and  that  Nature's  masons,  the  frost, 
the  sun,  and  the  rains,  and  also  the  eddying  currents  of 
the  lake,  have  been  chiseling  away  for  many  an  age  upon 
a  gi'eat  mass  of  porphyry,  until  they  have  shaped  it  into 
these  quaint  fonns,  which  at  a  little  distance  so  much 
resemble  ruins.  It  was  rather  unMnd,  though,  for  I  had 
just  built  up  a  theory  in  my  own  mind  to  account  for 
the  sunken  city  :  that  Xerxes,  with  his  love  of  making 
canals,  had  let  out  the  waters  of  the  lake  ;  that  his  engi- 
neers, attracted  by  the  fertile  land  below,  and  the  lovely 
views  and  climate,  had  built  unto  themselves  a  city  as  a 
settlement  in  this  fair  land ;  that  their  canals  had  silted 
up,  and — but  the  vision  was  dispelled,  and  I  rode  on,  feel- 
ing, to  use  a  fashionable  slang  phrase,  "sold."  But  it 
read  me  a  lesson — never  to  theorize  until  mind  and  matter 
had  fought  it  out. 

To  return  to  my  journey  up  the  other  side  of  the  range 
of  Sultanitza  Mountains,  which  stretch  from  the  high  top 
of  that  name  away  for  eighty  miles  or  more  past  Lake 
Besik  to  the  sea.  As  we  ascended  the  winding  road,  up 
ravines,  over  crests  of  hills,  along  ridges,  and  through 
woods,  I  found  myself  face  to  face  with  ancient  and  mod- 
ern scientific  skill.  I  stood  on  the  remnant  of  a  Roman 
road,  and  by  the  side  of  an  ancient  fountain  that  had  led 
the  waters  of  an  artesian  well  to  slake  the  thirst  of  the 
weary  Roman  soldier  as  he  toiled  up  the  steep  ascent ; 
while  over  my  head  messages  with  lightning  sx)eed  were 
passing  through  a  wire,  and  changing  man's  estimate  of 
distance.  Above  that  again  was  a  soaring  eagle,  as  if  to 
point  the  next  step  in  scientific  motion  that  the  "coming 
race  "  might  rise  to. 

I  had  met  traces  of  this  Roman  road  at  intervals  along 
the  whole  valley  of  the  Strymon,  and  it  doubtless  here 
turned  over  the  mountains  to  meet  the  Via  Egnatia, 
which  ran  past  the  lakes  Besik  and  St.  Basil.  The  care 
which  in  ancient  days  was  bestowed  on  the  march  of 
armies,   was  conspicuous  by  the  numerous  wells  which 


MACEDONIAN  PLAINS.  343 

were  made  at  intervals  along  the  mountain  road.  The 
men  and  horses  would  necessarily  require  water  in  toil- 
ing over  these  hills,  but  to  slake  the  thirst  of  a  large 
army  would  require  days  unless  numerous  sources  for  the 
suj)ply  of  water  were  available.  Accordingly,  at  proper 
intervals  these  ancient  wells  are  found,  so  that  a  short 
halt  might  be  sufficient  to  supply  the  whole  army. 

There  are  numerous  Youruk  villages  on  these  hills,  and 
the  land  is  better  cultivated  than  in  most  parts  of  Turkey  ; 
but  the  lawless  character  of  this  race  was  manifest  by  the 
numerous  becklemes,  or  police-stations,  along  the  whole 
route. 

I  slept  that  night  at  Lachane,  one  of  their  mountain  vil- 
lages, and  by  the  afternoon  of  the  next  day  was  crossing 
the  rich,  elevated,  and  narrow  plain  of  Langaza,  and  at  the 
time  I  little  thought  that  some  of  the  land  over  which  I 
was  then  riding  was  to  become  my  own. 

Two  very  large  tumuli  formed  conspicuous  objects  in 
the  plain,  and  after  leaving  them  behind,  and  rising 
through  a  narrow  pass  on  the  low  ridge  which  descends 
from  the  Kortach  mountains,  the  great  and  classic  plain 
of  Macedon  lay  before  our  view,  with  the  swift-flowing 
Axius  wending  its  way  to  the  sea  on  our  left  front — the 
sea  which  we  had  last  left  in  the  Bay  of  Burgas — and 
the  glorious  Mount  Olympus,  rising  to  a  height  of  9,970 
feet,  away  across  the  Bay  of  Salonica  to  the  west. 

On  arriving  at  Salonica  an  hour  afterward,  I  was  most 
hospitably  received  and  housed  by  Consul  Blunt,  and  I 
here  had  the  advantage  of  making  the  acquaintance  of 
the  Rev.  P.  Crosbie,  who  is  so  energetically  engaged  in 
his  mission  work  in  that  district.  I  have  to  thank  him  for 
much  valuable  information,  and  have  since  had  many  op- 
portunities of  witnessing  his  good  and  useful  labors.  I 
submitted  to  a  critical  examination  from  a  Greek  oculist, 
who  at  once  ordered  me  off  to  England  to  consult  more 
experienced  practitioners  of  my  own  nation.  And  while  I 
am  away  on  the  journey  I  will  carry  my  reader  over  a 
brief  descrij^tion  of  the  ancient  and  modern  state  of  these 
wonderful  Macedonian  plains. 


CHAPTER    XIX. 

THE  MACEDONIAN  PLAIN'S. 

The  MarsTi  of  Bortoros — Pella — Salonica — Hot  Springs — Tlierma  in  the  Time 
of  Xerxes — Lions — The  Last  King  of  Macedon — Mineral  Wealth  of  Mace- 
donia— The  Via  Egnatia — St.  Paul's  Pulp'J — Massacre  by  Theodosius — 
Literary  Celebrities  of  Salonica — Remains  of  Antiquity — Arch  of  Con- 
stantine — Heathen  Temples  and  Mohammedan  Mosques — Population — 
Midhat  Pasha — Railways — Facilities  for  Making  Canals — Enterprising 
Greeks — Jews — Their  Entry  into  Turkey — Funeral  of  a  Chief  Rabbi. 

rpHE  Macedonian,  or  as  they  are  now  called,  the  Sal- 
-^  onica  plains,  are  bounded  on  the  west  by  the  chain 
of  mountains  formed  by  Olympus,  Bermius,  and  Babuna, 
which  on  this  slope  are  principally  composed  of  compact 
limestone,  on  the  north  by  Mount  Paik  of  mica  schist, 
on  the  east  by  the  Hortach  range  of  mica  schist  and 
crystalline  limestone,  and  on  the  south  by  the  Bay  of 
Salonica. 

There  can  be  very  little  doubt  that  the  sea  originally 
occupied  the  whole  of  the  area  fifty  miles  long  by  forty 
miles  broad,  which  is  now  dry  land,  and  forms  the  rich 
alluvial  soil  of  clay  loam.  The  great  rivers  which  now 
thread  their  way  through  the  plain,  brought  down  their 
fertile  freight  from  the  washings  of  the  mountains,  and 
dropped  it  during  countless  ages  until  it  silted  up  and 
drove  away  the  sea. 

These  rivers  are  the  Echidorus  (Gallico),  Axius  (Yar- 
dar),  Lydias  (Karasmac),  and  Haliacmon  (Vistritza),  and 
of  these  the  Vardar  is  the  most  industrious  in  the  land- 
forming  operation. 

Near  the  foot  of  the  western  mountains  there  stretches 
a  broad  belt  of  jungle  for  a  distance  of  about  twenty 
miles,  which  is  broken  here  and  there  by  cultivated  fanns 

344 


ANCIENT  PELLA.  345 

and  pasture  land,  but  the  rest  of  tlie  plain  is  almost  tree- 
less, and  has  a  dreary  look  until  the  hills  are  approached. 
At  the  northern  side  there  is  a  vast  marsh  about  twenty- 
miles  long  by  ten  broad,  the  center  being  a  lake,  which 
varies  in  size  according  to  the  season.  These  marshes 
were  in  ancient  days  called  Borboros  ;  and  the  lake  pro- 
duced a  fish  called  "chromis,"  which  was  particularly  fat 
in  summer.  This  fish  is  the  silurus,  and  it  is  caught  there 
(as  well  as  fine  eels)  in  the  present  day. 

The  river  Karasmac  loses  itself  in  the  marsh,  and  after- 
ward flows  out  to  the  south  and  joins  the  Yardar  near 
the  sea ;  and,  from  the  natural  formation  of  the  land,  the 
whole  plain  might  be  drained  Avith  the  greatest  ease,  and 
laid  out  into  navigable  canals.  The  land  reclaimed  fi'om 
the  marsh  would  more  than  repay  the  cost  of  the  under- 
taking. 

Close  to  this  marsh  was  situated  the  ancient  town  of 
Pella,  which  was  raised  to  importance  by  Philip,  who 
there  fixed  his  royal  residence.  The  district  must  have 
had  some  fascination,  since  Aristotle  also  resided  at 
Pella ;  but  its  greatest  claim  to  renown  consists  in  its 
having  been  the  birthplace  of  Alexander  the  Great. 

In  those  ancient  days  the  town  was  in  communication 
with  the  sea  by  the  marsh  and  the  river  Lydias.  It 
grew  to  be  a  considerable  city,  three  miles  in  circum- 
ference, and  the  capital  of  Macedonia,  until  the  fall  of 
Perseus.  A  city  of  still  greater  importance  was  that  of 
Salonica,  and  its  geographical  position  as  a  seaport  on 
the  edge  of  a  rich  plain,  made  it  one  of  the  landmarks  of 
history.  It  was  the  chief  station  on  the  Via  Egnatia,  be- 
tween the  Adriatic  and  the  Hellespont,  being  twenty- 
seven  miles  from  Pella  and  sixty-seven  from  Amphipolis. 
In  easy  water-communication  with  the  numerous  towns 
which  then  existed  on  the  coast  of  Chalcidice,  it  became 
an  important  center  of  trade  for  the  whole  district,  and  it 
eventually  rose  to  be  one  of  the  chief  cities  in  the  south 
of  Europe. 

The  earliest  legendary  names  by  which  it  is  handed 


346  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

down  to  us  are  tliose  of  Ematliia  and  Halia  ;  but  in  con- 
sequence of  the  liot  salt-springs  wliicli  are  found  in  the 
neighborhood  it  afterward  received  the  name  of  Thenna. 

There  is  one  of  these  springs  in  the  small  elevated  plain 
of  Langaza,  about  nine  miles  from  Salonica,  which  was  a 
favorite  resort  of  the  Romans  ;  and  there  still  remains  a 
large  building  of  that  period,  which  was  placed  over  the 
spring,  that  poured  its  waters  into  a  great  marble  bath, 
wherein  Turks,  Jews,  Greeks,  and  Bulgarians  now  lave 
themselves  for  the  sake  of  the  curative  properties  of  the 
water. 

When  Xerxes  advanced  into  Thrace  and  had  passed  his 
fleet  through  the  canal  which  he  formed  near  Mount  Athos, 
he  ordered  it  to  proceed  to  Tlierma  by  sea,  while  he 
marched  his  army  by  two  separate  routes  to  the  same 
place,  and  there  encamped  his  troops  between  it  and  the 
river  Axius. 

As  he  gazed  across  the  Thermaic  Gulf  at  the  mountains 
of  Olympus  and  Ossa,  which  stood  out  in  all  their  gran- 
deur, he  formed  the  project  of  exiDloring  the  sources  of 
the  river  Peneus,  being  fascinated  apparently  with  the 
extraordinary  beauties  of  that  country.  Herodotus  speaks 
of  numerous  large  Greek  towns  between  the  canal  and 
Therma,  and  especially  of  those  actually  bordering  the 
Thermaic  Gulf,  such  as  Lipaxus,  Combrea,  Lis?e,  Gigonus, 
Campsa,  Smila,  and  ^nea,  all  designated  as  cities,  and  at 
which  the  fleet  stopped  to  recruit  both  ships  and  men. 
These  were  in  the  country  which  was  aftervrard  called 
Crosssea.  He  also  couples  the  cities  of  Sindus  and  Chal- 
estra  (on  the  Axius)  with  Therma,  showing  that  they 
must  have  been  considerable  towns,  and  that  i)rior  to  b.  c. 
480,  the  whole  of  this  district  must  have  been  in  a  very 
flourishing  and  populous  state.  In  many  places  which 
are  wild  and  almost  uninhabited  in  the  present  day,  a 
white  marble  j)illar  or  a  slab  crops  uj)  out  of  the  earth  to 
tell  of  past  grandeur.  There  is  one  remarkable  circum- 
stance in  a  natural-history  jDoint  of  view  which  is  men- 
tioned by  Herodotus,  who,  in  describing  the  march  of  the 


ANCIENT  TEERMA.  347 

army  of  Xerxes,  speaks  of  lions  having  attacked  Ms  bag- 
gage-animals, and  especially  the  camels,  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  the  river  Echidorus,  near  the  Axius,  and  that 
although  they  were  very  numerous  in  that  district,  they 
were  not  to  be  found  in  other  parts  of  Europe.  He  also 
speaks  of  the  wild  bulls  which  were  in  the  same  quarter, 
and  that  their  long  horns  were  much  esteemed  at  Athens. 
These  cattle  were  probably  the  aurochs  which  are  now  to 
be  found  in  Livonia,  in  Russia,  and  also  in  the  Caucasus. 
A  lion  appears  on  one  side  of  the  coin  of  Perdiccas,  King 
of  Macedon. 

In  B.C.  432  Therma  was  taken  by  the  Athenians,  but 
afterward  restored  to  Perdiccas,  and  a  few  years  later  it 
was  visited  by  Brasidas  on  his  way  to  Amphipolis.  The 
name  was  changed  from  Therma  to  Thessalonica  about 
B.C.  310,  by  Cassander,  King  of  Macedonia,  who  married 
Thessalonica,  half-sister  of  Alexander  the  Great,  and  in 
her  honor  rebuilt  the  town  of  Therma,  and  gave  to  it  the 
name  of  his  wife.  Such,  at  least,  is  the  account  as  given 
by  Strabo,  but  other  writers  assign  different  reasons  and 
periods  for  the  change  of  name.  It  was  afterward,  in  the 
middle  ages,  called  Saloniki  by  the  Italians,  Salnek  by 
the  Germans,  2a\oviH?/  by  the  Greeks,  Selanik  by  the 
Turks,  and  now  Salonique  by  the  French,  and  Salonica  by 
the  English,  so  that  it  seems  difficult  to  find  any  generic 
name  for  the  town  which  is  acceptable  to  all  nations.  Cas- 
sander incorporated  in  his  new  city  the  population  not 
only  of  Therma,  but  like^vise  of  three  smaller  towns — 
viz.,  ^nea  and  Cissus  (which  are  supposed  to  have  been 
on  the  eastern  side  of  the  gulf),  and  Chalastra,  which 
Strabo  supposes  to  have  been  on  the  further  side  of  the 
Axius  ;  but  it  does  not  appear  that  these  cities  were  abso- 
lutely destroyed,  or  that  Therma  lost  its  separate  exist- 
ence. It  is  probable  that  Cassander  merely  enlarged  the 
town,  and  induced  some  of  the  inhabitants  of  these  other 
places  to  occupy  the  houses. 

Thessalonica  was  the  great  naval  station  of  the  Mace- 
donians,  but  it  was  not  considered  the  capital  of  the 


348  TURKEY  m  EUROPE. 

kingdom,  wMch  was  fixed  at  Edessa,  tlie  modem  Vod- 
liena. 

After  the  defeat  of  Perseus  (fhe  last  King  of  Macedon) 
by  Paulus  ^milius,  at  Pydna,  Tliessalonica  fell  into  tlie 
hands  of  the  Romans  (b.c.  168),  and  was  made  the  capi- 
tal of  the  second  of  the  four  divisions  of  Macedonia,  and 
retained  that  honor  after  it  was  made  into  a  province. 

During  the  reign  of  the  last  Macedonian  kings  the 
country  must  have  been  in  a  most  flourishing  state,  and 
extremely  wealthy.  Plutarch,  in  comparing  the  avarice  of 
Perseus  with  the  recklessness  of  Alexander,  when  he  set 
fire  to  the  trains  of  wagons  containing  Persian  wealth,  and 
which  encumbered  his  army,  says,  "Whereas  Perseus, 
though  he,  his  children,  and  his  kingdom  overflow  with 
wealth,  would  not  purchase  his  preservation  at  the  ex- 
pense of  a  small  part  of  it,  but  was  carried  a  wealthy  cap- 
tive to  Rome,  and  showed  that  people  what  immense  sums 
he  had  saved  and  laid  up  for  them,"  etc.,  etc. 

This  wealth  was  probably  derived  from  the  rich  mines 
of  the  country  as  well  as  from  its  trade,  and  the  products 
of  the  industry  of  a  large  population.  But  riches  were 
also  combined  with  learning,  as  we  hear,  among  other 
treasures  prized  by  Paulus  ^Emilius,  of  a  magnificent 
library  which  belonged  to  the  Macedonian  king. 

With  the  fall  of  Perseus,  Macedonia  lost  its  national 
character.  Restrictions  were  placed  upon  the  people, 
which  cramped  their  trade  and  broke  up  their  social  or- 
ganization. 

The  country  was  divided  into  four  districts,  and  it  was 
declared  unlawful  for  any  one  to  intermaiTy,  to  carry  on 
trade,  or  to  buy  or  sell  any  lands  to  any  one  who  was  not 
an  inhabitant  of  his  own  district. 

They  were  prohibited  to  import  any  salt,  or  to  sell  any 
timber  fit  for  building  ships,  to  the  barbarians,  as  they 
were  called,  of  the  neighboring  districts.  All  the  no- 
bility, and  their  children  exceeding  the  age  of  fifteen, 
were  commanded  immediately  to  quit  the  country  and 
settle  in  Italy.    The  glory  of  Macedon  had  departed,  but 


THESSALONICA.  349 

Thessalonica,  from  its  geograpliical  position  as  a  naval 
and  mercantile  station,  on  tlie  liigliway  of  the  Via  Egna- 
tia,  still  retained  its  importance. 

From  Dyrrachium  and  Apollonia,  the  Via  Egnatia  ex- 
tended a  distance  of  500  miles  to  the  Hebrus  in  Thrace. 
The  roads  from  Dyrrachium  and  Apollonia  met  together 
at  a  place  called  Clodiana,  and  thence  the  Via  Egnatia 
passed  over  the  mountains  to  Heraclea  in  Macedonia.  It 
entered  the  plain  at  Edessa,  and  thence  passed  by  Pella 
to  Thessalonica.  There  were  many  other  Roman  roads  in 
connection  vrith  the  Via  Egnatia,  and  remains  of  them 
may  be  found  both  north  and  south  of  the  Balkan  in  the 
present  day. 

Cicero,  after  he  had  quitted  Rome,  took  up  his  residence 
at  Thessalonica  for  some  months,  where  he  was  hospitably 
received  at  the  house  of  Plancius,  the  Quaestor.  It  was 
from  there  that  he  poured  forth  his  bitterness  of  soul  and 
lamentations  over  his  fate,  in  a  series  of  letters  to  Teren- 
tia,  Atticus,  and  others. 

It  was  during  the  period  of  the  Roman  conquest  of 
Macedonia  that  the  present  Wallachians,  who  are  found 
in  the  neighboring  mountain-districts,  were  probably 
planted  in  the  country  as  Roman  colonists. 

After  the  advent  of  the  Christian  era,  Thessalonica  be- 
came celebrated  for  the  sojourn  of  St.  Paul  at  that  city. 
In  one  of  the  mosques,  which  was  originally  the  Christian 
Church  of  St.  Sophia,  there  is  still  preserved  a  very  fine 
pulpit  of  terde  antico,  said  to  have  been  used  by  St.  Paul. 
The  Turks  show  every  respect  to  this  ancient  monument 
of  Christianity.  There  are  also  clumps  of  trees  on  several 
parts  of  the  plain,  which  are  supposed  to  mark  the  spots 
where  St.  Paul  stopped  to  preach. 

Thessalonica  can  claim  a  distinguished  position  in 
ecclesiastical  history.  Conybeare  and  Howson,  in  their 
"Life  and  Epistles  of  St.  Paul,"  say :  "  No  city  which  we 
have  yet  had  occasion  to  describe  has  had  so  distinguished 
a  Christian  history,  with  the  single  exception  of  the 
Syrian  Antioch,  and  the  Christian  glory  of  the  patriarchal 


350  TURKEY  m  EUROPE. 

city  gradually  faded  before  tliat  of  the  Tvf acedonian  me- 
tropolis. The  heroic  age  of  Thessalonica  was  the  third 
century.  It  was  the  bulwark  of  Constantinople  in  the 
shock  of  the  barbarians,  and  it  held  up  the  torch  of  the 
truth  to  the  successive  tribes  who  overspread  the  country 
between  the  Danube  and  the  JEgean — the  Goths  and 
the  Slaves,  the  Bulgarians  of  the  Greek  Church,  and  the 
Wallachians,  whose  language  still  seems  to  connect  them 
with  the  Philippi  and  the  Roman  colonies.  Thus,  in  the 
mediaeval  chroniclers,  it  has  deserved  the  name  of  the 
"  Orthodox  City."  During  the  first  three  centuries  of  the 
Christian  era,  Thessalonica  was  the  capital  of  the  whole 
country  between  the  Adriatic  and  Black  Sea,  and  even 
after  the  founding  of  Constantinople  it  remained  the  capi- 
tal of  Greece,  Macedonia,  and  lUyricum.  In  the  middle 
of  the  third  century  it  was  made  a  Roman  colonia.  Con- 
stantine  remained  for  some  time  at  Thessalonica  after  his 
victory  over  the  Sarmatians ;  and  there  is  a  grand  tri- 
umphal arch  still  standing,  which  was  erected  in  honor  of 
that  event.  Under  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Theodosius, 
A.D.  390,  a  sedition  broke  out  among  the  people  of  Thes- 
salonica, and  they  cruelly  murdered  Botheric  (one  of  the 
Roman  generals),  together  with  many  of  his  officers,  and 
their  mangled  bodies  were  dragged  about  the  streets. 
Theodosius,  exasperated  at  this  cruel  act,  formed  the  still 
more  inhuman  project  of  a  massacre  of  the  citizens.  They 
were  treacherously  invited  to  the  games  of  the  circus,  to 
which  they  were  passionately  addicted,  and  as  soon  as 
they  were  assembled,  soldiers,  who  were  posted  for  the 
purpose,  fell  upon  them,  sparing  neither  age  nor  sex,  and 
cruelly  massacred  15,000  defenseless  human  beings.  A 
touching  story  is  told  of  a  foreign  merchant  who  was 
present,  and  who  offered  his  own  life  and  wealth  to  supply 
the  iDlace  of  one  of  his  two  sons.  But  upon  being  asked 
to  choose,  he  hesitated  to  condemn  one  by  the  invidious 
choice  of  the  other,  so  the  impatient  assassins  put  an  end 
to  his  suspense  by  plunging  their  daggers  into  the  hearts 
of  both  his  boys. 


TEESSALONIC±  351 

Theodosius  was  personally  well  acquainted  with.  Thes- 
salonica,  as  he  had  transferred  his  seat  of  government 
there  fi'om  Constantinople. 

Thessalonica  was  the  great  safeguard  of  the  Roman 
Empire  during  the  Gothic  invasions  ;  it  bore  the  brunt  of 
the  Slavonic  wars  from  the  middle  of  the  sixth  to  the  lat- 
ter part  of  the  eighth  century. 

In  the  year  904  it  was  besieged  and  taken  by  the  Sara- 
cens, and  the  inhabitants  were  slaughtered  with  the 
greatest  cruelty.  The  jDopulation  of  the  town  at  that 
period  is  said  to  have  been  220,000,  which  is  more  than 
double  that  of  the  present  day.  It  was  again  taken  by 
the  Normans  in  1185.  Tancred  sent  his  army  by  the  Via 
Egnatia  from  Dyrrachium,  while  his  fleet  sailed  round  to 
the  Tliermaic  Gulf,  and  the  united  naval  and  military 
forces  captured  the  town  and  barbarously  treated  the 
inhabitants. 

At  this  period  Eustathius,  who  was  one  of  the  most 
learned  men  of  his  age,  was  Archbishop  of  Thessalonica ; 
he  was  the  author  of  a  valuable  commentary  on  the 
"Hiad"  and  the  "Odyssey,"  and  of  various  other 
works. 

Among  other  literary  characters  produced  by  this  town 
may  be  mentioned  Theodore  Gaza,  who  went  to  Italy 
as  a  Latin  ecclesiastic,  and  became  the  translator  of  Aris- 
totle, Theophrastus,  and  Hippocrates. 

Symeon,  the  chief  authority  in  the  Modem  Greek 
Church  on  ritual  subjects,  was  also  a  native  of  the  town. 
He  died  a  few  months  before  the  place  was  taken  by  the 
Turks. 

Cyrillus,  who  converted  the  Bulgarians  and  Slavonians 
to  Christianity,  was  bom,  and  also  received  his  early 
education,  here. 

The  see  of  Salonica  became  almost  a  patriarchate,  and  it 
was  the  withdrawal  of  the  provinces  subject  to  its  juris- 
diction from  the  see  of  Rome,  in  the  reign  of  Leo,  the 
Isaurian,  that  became  one  of  the  principal  causes  of  the 
separation  of  the  Eastern  and  Western  Churches.     It  was 


353  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

captured  by  Amuratli  II.,  and  became  subject  to  the 
Turks  in  a.d.  1430. 

There  are  many  remains  of  antiquity  in  this  historical 
town,  and  it  would  offer  an  admirable  field  for  an  archaeo- 
logical campaign.  On  the  hills  immediately  outside  the 
walls  are  remains  of  ancient  marble  buildings  ;  and  white 
marble  sarcophagi,  beautifully  sculptured,  crop  out  here 
and  there  among  the  great  pUes  of  earth  and  rubbish,  as  a 
temptation  to  further  search. 

Who  knows  whether  some  of  the  riches  of  Perseus  may 
not  be  hidden  among  these  remnants  of  antiquity  ?  The 
town  is  surrounded  on  the  land  side  with  a  high  brick- 
work wall  of  defense,  which  was  buUt  in  the  Middle  Ages, 
and  beneath  this  a  lower  wall  has  been  discovered,  formed 
in  many  parts  of  great  blocks  of  white  marble,  which 
evidently  at  some  period  were  portions  of  magnificent 
buildings,  which  then  adorned  the  now  miserable  town. 
It  looks  as  though  at  some  time  in  its  history  the  city  had 
been  sacked,  and  the  principal  buildings  puUed  down  to 
form  walls  of  defense,  to  save  the  labor  of  hewing  out  the 
stone  from  the  neighboring  rock. 

The  two  monuments  of  greatest  interest  were  the  great 
arches  of  the  western  and  eastern  gates,  which  formed  the 
entrance  and  exit  to  the  town  by  the  Via  Egnatia,  which 
passed  through  its  center.  Sad  to  say,  the  western  arch, 
called  the  Vardar  Gate,  has  of  late  years  been  puUed 
down  by  the  Turks,  and  most  of  its  interesting  sculpture- 
work  chopped  up  to  rebuild  parts  of  the  wall !  The  east- 
em  arch  is  stni  standing,  a  monument  of  ancient  grandeur 
amidst  modern  misery. 

It  is  built  of  brick,  partly  faced  with  marble,  and  for- 
merly consisted  of  three  archways,  the  remains  of  which 
are  stUl  visible. 

This  arch  is  supposed  to  have  been  erected  in  honor  of 
Constantine,  to  commemorate  his  victories  over  the  Sar- 
matians. 

On  the  left  of  the  main  street,  between  the  Yardar  en- 
trance and  this  arch,  and  in  a  side  alley,  there  are  four 


ARCHEOLOGY.  353 

CorintMan  columns,  supporting  an  architrave,  above  which 
are  caryatides  or  statues  of  women,  in  lieu  of  columns,  to 
uphold  an  entablature  and  cornice.  Two  of  the  figures 
represent  Leda  and  Ganymede.  This  interesting  remnant 
forms  part  of  the  house  of  a  Jew,  and  it  is  called  by  that 
nation  "  Las  Incantados,"  implying  that  they  were  petri- 
fied by  enchantment. 

It  is  supposed  to  be  the  Propyloeum  of  the  Hippo- 
drome, which  was  situated  in  the  south-eastern  part  of 
the  to'wTi,  between  the  sea  and  the  building  called  the  Ro- 
tunda, now  a  mosque,  but  previously  the  Church  of  Eski 
Metropoli,  and'before  the  Christian  era  a  heathen  temple. 
In  construction  it  is  similar  to  the  Pantheon  at  Rome.  It 
is  called  by  the  Greeks  the  Church  of  St.  George. 

The  date  given  to  this  interesting  building  is  the  reign 
of  Trajan.  The  inside  of  the  dome  is  covered  with  beau- 
tiful mosaics,  and  among  the  bu-ds  which  are  depicted 
upon  it,  the  red-legged  partridge  is  plainly  distinguish- 
able. 

It  was  near  this  church,  in  the  great  Hippodrome,  which 
lay  between  it  and  the  sea,  that  the  massacre  of  the  in- 
habitants took  place,  under  the  orders  of,  Theodosius. 
Another  mosque,  called  Eski  Djuma,  157  feet  long  by  50 
feet  wide,  is  said  by  Beaujour,  to  have  been  a  temple  con- 
secrated to  Yenus  Therm^ea. 

This  also  became  a  Christian  church,  and  afterward  a 
Mohammedan  mosque. 

It  contains  several  Ionic  pillars,  and  could  be  restored 
without  difficulty.  It  is  said  to  be  in  a  better  state  of  pres- 
ervation than  any  other  monument  of  Grecian  antiquity. 

Next  to  this  may  be  mentioned  the  mosque  of  St.  De- 
metrius, the  patron  saint  of  Salonica. 

It  was  built  in  597,  but  was  partly  destroyed  by  fire  a 
hundred  years  afterward,  and  again  rebuilt.  There  are 
two  rows  of  very  beautiful  xerde  antico  pillars  in  this 
mosque.  The  whole  of  the  interior  was  lined  with  mar- 
ble. The  Turks  have  left  many  of  the  decorations  repre- 
senting saints  and  passages  of  Biblical  history. 
23 


3j4  turkey  in  EUROPE. 

Mr.  Fergnsson,  in  his  "Handbook  of  Architecture," 
gives  an  interesting  description  of  these  ancient  buildings. 
Many  of  the  ancient  remains  of  Salonica  were  taken  to 
Constantinople  in  1430,  when  the  place  was  captured  by 
the  Turks. 

But  the  interest  of  the  archaeologist  would  not  be  con- 
fined to  the  town  of  Salonica  alone ;  the  whole  neigh- 
borhood is  replete  with  remnants  of  by-gone  days  of 
splendor. 

The  population  of  this  city  in  the  present  day  is  about 
100,000,  of  which  one-third  are  Jews.  When  Midhat 
Pasha  was  Yali,  or  Governor-General,  some  few  years 
ago,  he  immediately  set  to  work  with  his  usual  energy  to 
improve  the  place,  and  commenced  a  fine  street,  which 
was  to  run  parallel  to  the  Via  Egnatia.  He  also  gave  his 
attention  to  the  roads  in  the  neighborhood,  and  had  he 
remained  any  length  of  time,  a  great  change  for  the  bet- 
ter would  have  been  made ;  but  almost  before  he  had 
commenced  his  plans  he  was  removed,  and  everything  re- 
mained at  a  standstill. 

The  town  now  contains  two  hotels,  which  are  moder- 
ately comfortable. 

The  railway  runs  from  Salonica  to  Metrovitza,  and  it  is 
intended  to  carry  it  on  to  Belgrade,  when  Macedonia  will 
be  brought  within  four  days  of  London  ! 

It  is  sad  to  see  this  naturally  wealthy  district,  which,  if 
it  was  in  the  hands  of  an  energetic  race,  would  soon  be 
made  the  garden  of  Europe,  lying  but  a  partially  culti- 
vated waste. 

Along  the  mountain  range  of  Bermius  there  are  three 
large  towns,  Yerria,  Niausta,  and  Vodhena,  each  possess- 
ing water-power  sufficient  to  work  all  the  manufactories  of 
Manchester. 

On  the  mountains  behind  them  are  extensive  forests  of 
oak,  pine,  beech,  and  sweet  chestnut  trees.  In  the  rocks 
about  them  are  mines  of  copper,  coal,  and  probably  other 
metals.  The  hills  are  covered  with  rich  pasture,  which 
produces  large  supplies  of  wool.    The  rich  plains  below 


COTTON  FA CTOR  T.  3 j5 

would  grow  any  quantity  of  cotton,  and  fhe  small  quan- 
tity now  groTNTi  is  of  excellent  quality.  The  soil  on  the 
hiU  slopes  is  peculiarly  favorable  to  vineyards,  and  the 
wine  is  the  best  that  is  made  in  Turkey.  Nature  seems 
here  to  have  gathered  all  her  riches,  and  to  be  offering 
them  to  the  hand  of  man.  Water-power,  wool,  cotton, 
timber,  metals,  fruit,  wine,  grain,  a  beautiful  climate 
— all  are  there — and  a  few  canals  would  place  them  in 
water  communication  with  the  coast  of  the  whole  world. 

In  the  days  of  the  Macedonian  kings,  2,400  years  ago, 
it  was  the  fairest  land  in  Europe.  When  will  it  be  so 
again  ? 

When  Salonica  is  connected  by  railway  with  Athens 
and  Belgrade,  and  also  with  Constantinople  by  the  route 
of  the  Via  Egnatia,  it  will  be  the  junction  of  three  impor- 
tant lines  of  European  communication.  Then,  if  it  be  pos- 
sible that  an  energetic  administration  can  be  established 
in  Turkey,  we  may  hope  to  see  the  ancient  glory  of  Mace- 
donia revived. 

The  beauty  of  this  country  in  ancient  days,  when  the 
lower  hills  were  no  doubt  covered  with  noble  forests, 
must  have  been  very  great ;  but  although  in  the  present 
day  the  grandeur  of  Olympus  and  the  neighboring  moun- 
tains is  still  the  same,  the  absence  of  trees  gives  a  dreary 
look  to  the  country  on  the  sea-coast. 

At  the  toA^Ti  of  Niausta,  beautifully  situated  on  the 
slope  of  Mount  Bermius,  two  enterprising  Greeks  have 
erected  a  manufactory  for  spinning  cotton  yam,  which  is 
worked  by  water-power.  The  machinery  is  twenty  horse 
power,  and  it  turns  out  fifty-five  bales  of  cotton  thread 
daily,  each  bale  weighing  9f  lbs.  Most  of  the  hands  em- 
ployed are  Greek  boys  and  giiis,  who  have  been  trained  to 
the  work,  and  proved  ajDt  scholars. 

It  employs  eighty  hands,  and  the  engineers  are  Greeks, 
who  were  educated  at  Athens. 

The  total  cost  of  the  building,  machinery,  and  in  fact  of 
the  whole  undertaking,  was  £4,000. 

Anybody  who  is  weU  acquainted  with  Turkey  must  be 


S56  TUEEEY  m  EUROPE. 

aware  of  the  obstacles  in  the  way  of  starting  such  an 
undertaking  as  this  manufactory.  First  comes  the  resi- 
dence for  perhaps  three  months  at  Constantinople  in 
order  to  obtain  the  necessuvj  Jirman,  and  a  certain  snm 
has  to  be  set  aside  for  backshish,  otherwise  the  delay 
would  be  prolonged  indefinitely.  After  this  worrying 
business  the  actual  work  has  to  begin,  the  impediments 
raised  by  the  Custom-house,  the  depressing  effect  of  hav- 
ing to  pay  duty  on  the  import  of  machinery  which  will 
benefit  the  country,  the  difficulty  of  providing  fifty  miles 
of  land  carriage  for  the  machinery  where  there  is  no  road, 
the  innumerable  breakdowns  before  it  even  arrives  at  the 
end  of  the  journey.  Then  the  arduous  task  of  getting  it 
fitted  in  working  order  in  a  country  where  a  square  peg 
is  always  made  for  a  round  hole,  and  last,  not  least,  comes 
the  diflBculty  of  getting  people  to  work  it. 

I  must  say  that,  as  Messrs.  Demetros  Longos  and  George 
Kyrches  most  courteously  showed  me  over  their  manufac- 
tory, which  was  working  away  gayly,  I  looked  upon  them 
with  the  admiration  and  respect  that  may  be  felt  for 
heroes,  and  I  sincerely  wished  them  the  success  they  so 
richly  deserve. 

The  Jewish  element  in  the  population  of  Turkey  is 
strongly  represented  in  Macedonia,  probably  because  it  is 
the  richest  quarter  of  the  empire ;  and  as  they  form  a 
very  important  element  among  Turkish  subjects,  \  will 
offer  my  reader  a  short  description  of  this  interesting 
people. 

They  are  met  in  every  bazaar  or  market  in  every  town, 
but  I  have  not  found  that  they  drive  harder  bargains  than 
other  Turkish  subjects.  In  all  purchases  in  Turkey  you 
are  usually  asked  four  times  as  much  as  will  be  actually 
taken,  and  you  are  generally  told  by  the  seller  that  he 
is  parting  with  his  goods  at  a  loss.  This,  however,  is  not 
peculiar  to  Turkey.  I  remember  when  in  the  Emerald 
Isle  being  tempted  by  an  Irishwoman  to  buy  some  fish 
on  the  following  recommendation :  "  Sure,  yer  honor,  it's 
chape,  and  yer  will  never  get  such  a  chance  again,  for  I'm 


THE  JEWS.  357 

losing  by  every  one  I  sell ;  but,  may  the  Lord  be  praised ! 
I  sell  a  gTeat  dale." 

Under  what  circumstances  the  Jews  made  their  first 
appearance  in  Europe  is  unknown. 

it  may  jDossibly  have  been  connected  with  the  conquests 
of  Alexander  the  Great,  and  Jews  may  have  passed  in 
the  train  of  his  generals  to  Macedonia,  and  there  settled. 
The  many  colonies  of  Jews  which  he  planted  about  his 
empire  point  to  a  connection  with  Macedonia  which  may 
be  possible.  That  in  those  early  days  they  were  not 
attracted  to  foreign  lands  by  the  commercial  pursuits  for 
which  they  have  since  become  so  conspicuous,  is  to  be 
inferred  from  Milman,  who,  speaking  of  a  still  later  pe- 
riod, says  :  "ISTor  is  there  any  reason  to  suppose  that  the 
Jews  of  Palestine,  who  were  now  in  their  lowest  state, 
both  as  to  numbers  and  opulence,  had  commenced  their 
mercantile  career." 

Conybeare  and  Howson,  in  writing  of  the  dispersion 
of  the  Jews,  say :  ''  It  is  natural  to  suppose  that  those 
islands  of  the  Archipelago,  which,  as  Humboldt  has  said, 
were  like  a  bridge  for  the  x)assage  of  civilization,  became 
the  means  for  the  advance  of  Judaism.  The  journey  of 
the  proselyte  Lydia  from  Thyatira  to  Philippi  (Acts  xvi. 
14),  and  the  voyage  of  Aquila  and  Priscilla  from  Corinth 
to  Ephesus  {ibid,  xviii.  18),  are  only  specimens  of  mercan- 
tile excursions  which  must  have  begun  at  a  far  earlier 
period.  PhUo  mentions  Jews  in  Thessaly,  Boeotia,  Mace- 
donia, etc.,  etc.  St.  Luke  speaks  of  them  at  Thessalonica 
and  Bersea." 

The  first  of  these  great  authorities  gives  it  as  his  opinion 
that  the  keen  mercantile  tendencies  of  the  nation  had  not 
set  in  about  250  years  before  Christ,  and  the  latter  author- 
ities show  that  they  must  have  pursued  foreign  trade 
some  considerable  time  before  the  birth  of  our  Saviour ;  so 
we  may  take  the  intermediate  time,  or  150  years  u.c,  as 
the  commencement  of  the  Jewish  mercantile  tide. 

The  Jews  have  probably  been  settled  in  Macedonia  from 
their  first  emigration  to  the  present  time.     They  are  men- 


358  TURKEY  IN  EVROPE. 

tioned  in  tlie  seyenth  century,  during  the  Slavonic  wars, 
and  again  in  tlie  twelfth  by  Eustathius,  who  was  Latin 
Archbishop  of  Thessalonica,  a.d.  1185,  and  by  Benjamin 
Tudela. 

The  events  of  the  fifteenth  century  had  the  effect  of 
bringing  a  large  number  of  Spanish  Jews  to  Thessalonica. 
Paul  Lucas  says  that  in  his  day  there  were  30,000  in  that 
city,  with  twenty-two  synagogues. 

It  is  from  the  latter  date  that  their  general  extension 
over  the  Turkish  Empire  probably  took  place,  although 
they  must  have  existed  in  considerable  numbers  in  the 
principal  cities  from  much  earlier  times.  Among  them- 
selves they  speak  the  ancient  Spanish  language,  and  their 
written  correspondence  is  carried  on  in  Hebrew. 

The  great  mass  of  the  Jews  in  Turkey  are  Talmudists  ; 
but  there  exists  a  small  section  of  Carai'tes,  or  those  who 
reject  the  rabbinical  explanations  of  the  Talmud  or  ex- 
pounded laws,  and  hold  exclusively  to  the  letter  of  the 
Bible.  This  sectarian  difference  seemed  to  foreshadow 
that  which  was  to  follow  in  the  antagonism  of  the  Sunnites 
and  the  Shiites  of  the  Mohammedan  faith.  The  Caraites 
have  about  a  hundred  families  at  Has-keui,  near  Constan- 
tinople ;  but  the  great  bulk  of  the  Jews  of  this  persuasion 
are  in  Gallicia  and  the  Crimea  ;  there  are  also  many  in 
Bagdad  and  in  Egypt.* 

There  is  also  a  curious  sect  of  Jews  at  Salonica,  called 
' '  Mamim, ' '  which  signifies  ' '  turncoat. ' '  They  believed  in 
the  fourteenth  false  Messiah,  Sabati  Levi,  who,  to  save 
his  life,  became  with  his  followers  Mohammedans  ;  but 
these  again  have  their  religious  differences,  and  are 
divided  into  three  sects.  They  are  all  still  Jews  at  heart, 
but  their  trifling  with  two  creeds  makes  them  despised 
and  looked  down  upon.  They  marry  among  themselves 
only,  and  live  together  in  a  particular  quarter  of  the  towm. 
There  are  others  of  the  same  sect  in  parts  of  Russia.  At 
Salonica  they  are  Mohammedans  in  public  and  Jews  in 
private  life. 

*  Ubicini. 


THE  JEWS.  359 

The  Jews  have  no  hierarcliy,  but  each  congregation  is 
independent,  and  governed  by  its  owti  Chief  Rabbi ;  but 
they  have  a  representative  head  at  Constantinople,  called 
the  "Khakham-bashi,"  who  is  chief  of  the  Israelite  nation 
in  the  empii'e.  As  it  is  part  of  the  Ottoman  system  of  gov- 
ernment to  rule  its  subjects,  with  their  diverse  religions, 
through  their  ecclesiastical  heads,  the  Khakham-bashi  at 
Constantinoj)le  has  a  court  or  council  to  assist  him  in  ad- 
ministering both  ecclesiastical  and  civil  law.  It  is  divided 
into  two  parts — first,  the  "Medjliss-i-rouhani,"  or  spuit- 
ual  council,  composed  of  six  Grand  Rabbis,  which,  as 
its  name  im^Dlies,  deals  with  questions  relating  to  the 
Jewish  religion;  and  second,  the  " Medjliss-i-djesmani," 
or  civil  council,  which  deals  with  questions  of  civil  law, 
and  assists  the  Turkish  courts  in  any  question  relating  to 
Jews.  The  same  organization  is  applied  by  each  Grand 
Rabbi,  who,  in  his  turn,  is  assisted  by  two  similar  coun- 
cils. As  the  Jewish  law,  like  that  of  the  Mohammedan,  is 
explained  by  the  teaching  of  the  sacred  books,  the  estab- 
lishment of  these  councils  forms  a  ready  means  of  arriving 
at  a  judgment  on  all  religious  and  civil  cases  arising  in  the 
Jewish  community.  It  will  be  seen  by  these  and  other 
explanations  how  admirably  organized  is  the  Turkish 
administration,  and  it  merely  requires  to  be  Iwnestly  and 
energetically  carried  out  to  make  Turkey  one  of  the  best- 
governed  countries  in  Europe. 

The  Khakham-bashi  takes  rank  immediately  after  the 
Greek  and  Armenian  Patriarchs. 

The  Jewish  population  of  the  Turkish  Empire  is  esti- 
mated at  158,000.  The  poorer  are  entirely  dependent  upon 
the  liberality  of  the  upper  classes  for  education  and  relief 
in  case  of  want,  and  the  obligation  is  met  in  a  most  com- 
mendable spirit.  They  possess  an  institution  called  the 
"  Universal  Israelite  Alliance,"  which  is  charged  with  the 
administration  of  education,  etc.  In  1875  the  Alliance 
had  twenty-one  schools  throughout  the  empire,  which 
gave  instruction  to  2,094  children  of  both  sexes,  and  of 
this  number  809  were  admitted  gratuitously.  The  teachers 


360  TURRET  IN  EUROPE. 

of  these  schools  are  educated  in  the  Rabbinical  Seminary 
at  Paris,  and  they  give  their  pupils  instruction  in  foreign 
languages  and  all  the  elements  of  a  first-class  education. 
Much  cannot  be  said  in  praise  of  the  elementary  schools, 
or  talmudtora.  They  are  crowded  with  children  of  both 
sexes,  who  are  simply  taught  to  read  and  write.* 

In  some  of  the  larger  towns  there  are  British  mis- 
sionaries for  the  conversion  of  the  Jews,  and  they  do  good 
service  in  educating  the  children  and  giving  them  moral 
ideas  and  habits,  but  I  cannot  learn  that  they  have  been 
very  successful  in  their  conversions — at  least,  if  I  may 
judge  from  a  conversation  I  had  with  one  of  them,  who 
had  resided  in  the  country  for  more  than  eighteen 
years. 

I  asked  this  very  worthy  gentleman  if  he  had  made 
many  converts,  and  he  replied  cautiously  that  "  he  could 
not  say  that  he  had."  Still  anxious  for  information,  I 
pushed  my  inquiries  by  the  question,  "How  many  con- 
verts have  you  at  the  present  time?  To  which  he  re- 
plied with  the  greatest  gravity,  "Well,  I  cannot  say  I 
have  any;"  but  he  added  quickly,  ^^ Miss  W.  has 
one  at  Cairo?''  I  therefore  conclude  there  are  none  in 
Turkey. 

Commercial  transactions  are  carried  on  through  the 
Jews  in  Turkey  in  a  manner  that  would  astonish  and 
frighten  merchants  in  England.  We  will  say  that  at 
Salonica  a  merchant  receives  a  large  order  for  prunes. 
The  part  of  the  country  which  supplies  these  lies  200  miles 
away.  He  therefore  hands  sufficient  money  to  purchase 
what  he  requires  to  a  traveling  Jew  who  is  well  ac- 
quainted with  the  country.  The  man  goes  off  with  the 
money  to  make  the  purchase,  and  does  not  return  with 
the  goods  for  one  or  perhaps  two  months. 

I  once  met  a  merchant  who  had  £27,000  out  in  this  way, 
and  no  goods  in  his  stores  to  show  for  it,  the  only  security 
being  the  honesty  of  the  Jewish  commercial  travelers ; 

*  Ubicini. 


THE  JEWS.  361 

yet  the  whole  of  the  purchases  came  safely  to  the  stores 
in  due  time. 

The  wealthy  Jews  are  most  charitable  to  the  poor.  I 
have  seen  from  the  mndows  of  the  British  Consulate  at 
Salonica  numerous  poor  people  attending  regularly  every 
morning  at  the  house  of  Messrs.  Allatini,  and  there  re- 
ceiving alms  and  assistance.  Serving  classes  are  also  got 
up  among  the  ladies,  and  every  effort  is  made  to  meet 
the  wants  of  poverty. 

The  functions  of  the  Jewish  Eabbis  are  usually  executed 
in  a  most  exemplary  manner,  and  command  the  respect  of 
all  classes  of  Ottoman  subjects  as  well  as  the  authorities. 
A  pleasing  manifestation  of  this  respect  took  place  at  the 
funeral  at  Salonica  of  his  Eminence  Raphael  Acher  Covo, 
Grand  Eabbi  of  Roumelia,  who  died  in  1874,  The  funeral 
was  attended  by  the  Staff  of  the  Turkish  Governor-Gen- 
eral, the  President  of  the  Municipal  Council,  by  the 
Foreign  Consular  Corps,  the  Greek  Bishop,  with  several 
of  his  clergy,  the  Protestant  ministers,  and  by  delegates 
from  the  several  corporations ;  and  it  was  probably  one  of 
the  largest  assemblies  of  the  kind  ever  witnessed  in 
Turkey.  On  passing  the  Metropolitan  Greek  Church  the 
bells  were  tolled,  the  flags  of  consulates,  and  of  all  the 
ships  in  the  harbor,  were  half-mast  high,  and  all  offices 
and  shops  were  closed. 

The  Jewish  Fire  Brigade,  in  the  service  of  the  Sun, 
North  British,  and  Mercantile  Insurance  Offices,  lined  the 
streets  and  maintained  good  order.  The  whole  adult  male 
Je"v\ish  population  were  in  the  streets,  while  the  Jewish 
women  were  at  the  open  windows,  and  added  to  the  effect 
of  the  general  mourning  by  their  wailings.*  The  late 
Rabbi  had  held  office  for  twenty-six  years,  and  was 
remarkable  for  his  justice  and  upright  conduct.  It  was 
instructive  that  the  possession  of  these  moral  qualities 
could  command  a  unity  of  aU  creeds  and  classes  to  pay 
respect  to  them. 

*  Report  from  Consul  Blunt. 


362  TURKEY  m  EUROPE. 

The  Jews  are  impervious  to  the  intrigues  of  either  Pan- 
Hellenic  or  Pan-Slavonic  societies,  and  I  should  say  there 
is  no  section  of  Ottoman  subjects  which  gives  the  Porte  so 
little  trouble.  Jews  and  Mohammedans  get  on  admirably 
together,  but  there  is  a  bitter  antagonism  between  the 
Jews  and  Greeks. 


CHAPTER  XX. 

A  SECOND  VISIT  TO  TUEKEY. 

Eapid  Change  of  Seasons— American  Philanthropy— A  Remarkable  Boy- 
Winter  Climate  of  Salonicar— Verria— The  Wallachians— Ferocious  Dogs 
— Preparations  for  a  Deer  Drive— A  Good  Bag— A  Well-ventilated  Khan 
— Hints  to  Travelers— Turkish  Signs — Exaggeration— Manufacturing  a 
Grievance — The  Cry  of  "  Wolf." 

T  HAD  left  Salonica  for  England  in  October,  in  a  warm 
-L  sun  and  clear  sky,  the  thermometer  standing  in  the 
shade  at  80°  Fahrenheit.  I  returned  at  the  end  of  De- 
cember, to  find  the  Mountain  of  the  Gods  hidden  with 
black  clouds,  a  storm  raging  in  the  bay,  the  thermometer 
as  low  as  30°  Fahrenheit,  and  the  mountains  white  with 
snow. 

There  are  several  very  pleasant  routes  from  England  to 
Turkey,  but  I  think  the  easiest  and  most  comfortable  is 
that  by  Marseilles,  in  the  splendid  steamers  of  the  Mes- 
sageries  Maritime  Company.  So  many  nationalities  are 
generally  represented  among  the  passengers  that  an 
Englishman  is  almost  sure  to  find  compatriots  on  board 
who  help  to  beguile  the  way. 

Judging  by  the  number  of  Americans  that  are  met 
abroad  in  every  nook  and  every  corner,  I  should  think 
their  country  must  contain  only  half  its  real  population. 

This  wonderful  people  are  not  only  met  with  in  the 
flesh,  but  their  mark  is  made  upon  the  world  at  large  for 
good,  without  prejudice  to  race,  creed,  or  locality ;  and 
the  traveler  is  astonished  and  delighted  to  find  here  and 
there  the  establishment  of  useful  works  which  have 
emanated  from  pure  and  unadulterated  philanthropy. 

I  have  already  alluded  to  Robert   College,  and  also  to 

363 


364  TURKEY  m  EUROPE. 

the  energetic  American  mission  in  Turkey.  By-tlie-by,  I 
must  mention  a  peculiar  trait  I  remarked  in  the  work  of 
that  mission,  namely,  the  amount  of  good  common  sense 
which  was  brought  to  bear  upon  their  work,  and  the  high- 
ly practical  way  in  which  it  was  carried  out.  There  was 
none  of  that  well-meant  but  misplaced  fanatical  zeal  so 
common  to  Christian  missions  ;  but  they  opened  the  door 
of  their  fold,  and,  in  a  simple  way,  invited  people  to  come 
and  go  as  they  liked,  assuring  them  that  they  would  find 
it  so  pleasant  that  they  would  like  to  stay. 

At  Athens  the  traveler  again  meets  with  American 
philanthropy  in  the  form  of  a  free  school  for  the  poorest 
classes  of  Greek  children,  who  flock  to  it,  and  number,  I 
believe,  over  400  of  both  sexes. 

It  was  my  good  fortune  to  find  a  large  party  of  Ameri- 
cans as  f  eUow-passengers,  and  their  wit  and  humor  nearly 
exhausted  me  with  laughter. 

There  was  a  boy  about  fourteen  years  of  age,  who,  with 
his  uncle,  were  specially  amusing.  The  latter  led  the  lad 
up  to  me  one  day,  when  I  was  sitting  on  deck  reading,  and 
introduced  him  as  follows : — 

"  Sorry  to  interrupt  you.  Colonel,  but  this  is  my  nephew, 
and  I  have  brought  him  to  show  you  what  we  can  rear  in 
America. 

"  This,  sir,  is  altogether  a  remarkable  boy,  and  I  can 
assure  you  that  if  you  had  him  in  England  you'd  have  to 
put  him  on  a  pair  of  cast-iron  breeches,  and  nail  him 
down ;  and  even  that  wouldn't  hold  him. 

It  afterward  seemed  to  me  that  it  was  quite  necessary 
that  the  nether  garments  of  this  extraordinary  boy  should 
be  composed  of  that  strong  metal,  in  order  that  he  might 
be  clothed  and  in  his  right  mind ;  for  he  gravely  informed 
me  that  he  had  been  in  England,  and  being  passionately 
fond  of  "  drumming,"  he  had  challenged  the  Drum-major 
(!)  of  the  Grenadier  Guards  to  a  match. 

"  But,  sir,"  he  said,  "  as  soon  as  the  signal  was  given  I 
started  off  with  'Yankee  Doodle'  and  'God  Save  the 
Queen'   at  such  a  pace  that  soon  the  Drum-major — he 


VLAQUES,  OR  WALLACEIANS.  305 

couldn't  hold  the  sticks  ;  and,  sir,  if  yon'd  been  looking 
at  that  7nan,  you'd  have  thought  you  were  looking  at  a 
scared  horse." 

I  can  quite  believe  it ! 

The  winter  climate  of  Salonica  is  quite  delightful ;  the 
days  are  generally  bright  and  warm,  with  hard  frosts  at 
night,  and  the  snowy  mountains  stand  out  in  the  clear  and 
bracing  air  to  add  fresh  charms  to  the  scenery.  There  are 
occasional  storms,  which  generally  last  for  three  days, 
and  when  the  wind  is  from  the  north,  they  are  frequently 
accompanied  with  snow  and  much  cold  ;  but  these  merely 
come  to  make  the  usual  weather  more  delightful  by  con- 
trast. This  is  the  season  for  the  sportsman,  and  among 
the  woods  near  the  Bermius  range  he  may  get  some  of  the 
finest  woodcock  shooting  in  the  world. 

As  I  was  anxious  to  see  the  mountains,  my  friend  Cap- 
tain Synge,  late  of  the  52nd  Regiment,  who  lives  upon  his 
farm  in  that  neighborhood,  kindly  organized  a  deer  drive. 

We  left  the  good  cheer  in  his  very  hospitable  house  on 
the  plains,  and  after  riding  for  about  four  hours  on  the 
flat,  ascended  the  side  of  the  mountain  for  about  500  feet 
to  Yerria,  the  ancient  Beroea,  which  now,  as  in  the  days 
of  St.  Paul,  numbers  many  Jews  in  its  population.  There 
is  nothing  of  much  interest  in  the  place  except  a  few  old 
remnants  of  Byzantine  buildings,  and  its  beautiful  situa- 
tion. Streams  of  water  flow  through  the  town,  and  the 
masses  of  maiden-hair  fern  which  cover  the  rocks  and  sides 
of  these  streams  give  a  pleasant  aspect  to  the  streets.  We 
passed  on,  and  ascended  the  mountain  for  another  hour, 
through  grassy  glades  and  deep  ravines,  until  we  came  to 
a  solitary  and  tumble-down  khan,  where  we  were  to  pass 
the  night. 

Here  we  found  a  number  of  Ylaques,  who  were  to  form 
the  beaters  for  the  next  day's  sport,  and  who  had  assem- 
bled by  appointment. 

The  origin  of  the  Ylaques,  otherwise  Wallachians,  or 
Roumanians,  or  Cinciari,  is  without  doubt  Roman,  and 
they  are  of  the  same  race  as  their  namesakes  in  Roumania 


366  TURKEY  m  EUROPE. 

and  Wallacliia.  Their  language  is  Latin,  mucli  corrupted 
by  the  introduction  of  Greek  and  Albanian  words. 

Their  entry  into  Turkey  dates  from  the  third  century, 
when  they  were  driven  out  of  Dacia  by  the  Goths,  and 
migrated  south  of  the  Danube,  and  formed  colonies  along 
the  attractive  Albanian  mountains. 

Consul  Blunt  has  suggested  that  they  -were  established 
as  colonies  along  these  mountains  in  order  to  guard  and 
keep  open  the  Via  Egnatia,  and  other  highways  ;  and 
there  is  much  force  in  the  suggestion. 

Be  that  as  it  may,  they  are  now  found  in  groups  scat- 
tered about  the  range  from  Epirus  to  North  Albania,  and 
as  might  be  expected,  they  have  a  tendency  to  become 
Hellenized  as  they  approach  the  Greek  frontier,  where 
their  language  is  being  gradually  replaced  by  Greek, 
more  especially  with  the  male  population.  The  women 
are  more  conservative,  and  hold  steadfastly  to  their 
mother-tongue,  and  are  indignant  if  they  are  mistaken 
for  either  Greeks  or  Bulgarians. 

The  people  are  divided  into  a  nomad  and  a  sedentary 
population.  The  former,  as  shepherds,  are  frequently 
met  with  in  all  parts  of  Turkey,  as  they  travel  great  dis- 
tances in  search  of  summer  and  winter  grazings  for  their 
flocks  and  herds,  and  it  is  not  uncommon  to  meet  in  the 
summer  a  Vlaque  grazing  his  sheep  on  a  part  of  the  Bal- 
kan Mountains,  which  is  two  hundred  miles  or  more  away 
from  his  winter  grazings  on  the  plains  of  Macedonia. 

The  sedentary  Ylaques  are  usually  engaged  in  agricul- 
ture and  commerce,  and  are  giving  much  attention  to  edu- 
cation. 

Their  schools  are  Greek,  and  are  well  conducted,  but  as 
yet  they  are  to  be  found  only  in  the  principal  to^vns. 

The  yiaques  are  Christians  of  the  Greek  Church,  but 
in  many  districts  they  have  shown  much  sympathy  with 
the  struggle  for  ecclesiastical  independence  of  the  Bulga- 
rians, and  they  have  generally  taken  the  latter  side  in  the 
riots  which  have  occurred  between  the  rival  churches. 

Like  other  populations  in  Turkey,  that  of  the  Ylaques 


SA  VAQE  BOOS.  3G7 

is  so  variously  stated  tliat  it  is  difficult  to  fix  upon  even 

an  approximate  number. 
M.  Bolintineano,  a  Roumanian,  gives  the  number  at 

1,200,000,  while  another  authority  states  it  at  only  144,- 

740,  after  statistics  said  to  have  been  taken  from  village 

to  village. 
The  latter  is  without  doubt  the  most  accurate,  and  it 

divides  the  people  among  the  following  countries  : — 

Epirus  and  Albania 50,740 

Macedonia 73,000 

Thessaly 21,000 

They  are  a  fine-looking  race,  generally  dark  and  with 
Roman  features,  more  marked  in  the  northern  than  in  the 
southern  districts,  and  are  an  industrious  and  peaceable 
people,  but  cunning  and  very  fond  of  intrigue. 

The  yiaques  and  other  mountain  shepherds  in  Turkey 
have  a  splendid  breed  of  dogs,  nearly  as  large  and  with 
much  of  the  appearance  of  a  wolf.  They  are  not  put  to 
the  same  use  as  the  collies  of  Scotland,  but  merely  act  as 
guards,  to  protect  the  flocks  from  the  ravages  of  wolves, 
etc.  In  traveling  on  the  mountains  two  or  three  of  these 
animals  will  sometimes  come  tearing  down  with  snarls 
and  grinning  jaws  upon  the  traveler,  who,  if  he  is  of  a 
timid  nature,  will  think  that  his  last  day  has  come.  His 
only  chance  is  to  walk  quietly  on  and  to  pick  up  a  stone 
if  there  is  one,  or  pretend  to  do  so  if  there  is  not.  He 
must  then  look  behind  him  mth  both  eyes  like  a  hare, 
and  pay  especial  attention  to  the  calves  of  his  legs. 

But  these  dogs  are  a  great  nuisance,  especially  at  night, 
if  you  happen  to  be  in  their  neighborhood. 

I  heard  of  a  tourist  who  was  seriously  mangled  by  these 
animals.  He  had  left  his  tent  in  the  night  either  to  look 
at  the  moon  or  to  count  the  stars,  when  some  of  these 
unmannerly  dogs  took  the  poor  man  at  a  disadvantage, 
and  he  only  escaped  with  his  life.  It  was  by  these  dogs 
that  Euripides  lost  his  life  when  stopping  at  the  town  of 
Bromiscus  or  Bormiscus,  near  the  valley  of  Arethusa  by 
the  Lake  Besik,  to  which  I  aUuded  in  a  former  chapter. 


368  TURKEY  m  EUROPE. 

These  dogs  were  then  called  Esterikae,  and  they  com- 
mitted such  a  savage  attack  upon  the  great  tragedian  that 
he  afterward  died  of  his  wounds — possibly  from  hydro- 
phobia. 

But  to  return  to  our  over-ventilated  khan,  on  the 
Olympian  range. 

At  this  altitude  and  season  of  the  year  it  was  cold,  and 
we  were  glad  of  our  cloaks  and  rugs  at  night,  as  the  wind 
whistled  through  countless  chinks  into  the  room,  and 
found  its  way  out  through  open  parts  of  the  roof.  In  the 
next  room  our  zaptieh — a  fine  old  Turkish  soldier — ^had 
fraternized  with  a  comrade  from  the  neighboring  Beck- 
leme,  and  we  fell  asleep  to  the  sound  of  their  subdued  song. 
Whether  the  ditty  told  of  the  glories  of  the  ancient  Sel- 
juks,  or  how  the  great  Afrasiab  had  courted  the  Empress 
Afrasiab,  I  cannot  say,  but  phonetically  it  ranged  between 
the  buzzing  of  a  drone  and  that  of  a  mosquito,  and  as  such 
it  was  pleasantly  soporific. 

An  early  rise  on  such  an  expedition,  when  you  go  out- 
side the  tent,  or  whatever  the  covering  may  be,  and  find 
the  stars  growing  pale  in  a  clear  blue  sky,  and  no  sound 
save  the  distant  murmuring  of  the  mountain  burns,  and  a 
pure  cold  air  fresh  upon  the  cheek,  is  very  cheering. 

We  were  soon  up  and  away  with  our  wild  set  of  Ylaques, 
all  unfortunately  armed  with  guns,  ancient  productions, 
with  the  barrels  of  such  a  length  that  they  seemed  as 
though  devised  for  getting  as  near  as  possible  to  the 
quarry. 

After  ascending  the  mountain  diagonally  for  about  two 
hours,  until  we  came  to  the  snow-line  among  rocks  and 
deep  ravines,  with  scattered  trees  of  monster  pine  and 
beech,  we  were  posted  along  a  ridge,  and  I  ensconced  my- 
self behind  a  crag  with  a  pass  immediately  below,  and 
leading  up  to  my  right.  We  had  to  wait  until  the  beaters 
went  on  two  miles  ahead,  and  soon  we  heard  their  shouts 
as  the  drive  commenced. 

As  they  drew  nearer,  I  heard  two  shots  to  my  left  below, 
which  told  that  either  deer  or  boar  were  passing. 


A  DEER  DRIVE.  369 

At  last  tlie  shots  from  among  tlie  beaters  became  fre- 
quent, and  their  yells  and  frantic  shouts  sounded  as  though 
they  were  being"  murdered.  Presently  I  heard  a  clatter 
among  the  rocks,  which  I  knew  was  made  by  deer,  and 
soon  three  hinds  appeared  coming  along  the  pass  about 
eighty  yards  below.  This  was  to  be  my  first  shot  from  the 
left  shoulder,  and  I  was  anxious  as  to  the  result.  Waiting 
until  I  saw  that  there  was  no  stag  following  the  hinds,  and 
that  I  had  no  time  to  lose  if  I  wanted  one  of  them,  I  gave 
a  whistle,  and  when  they  stopped  to  listen  took  my  shot. 

I  had  the  satisfaction  of  seeing  my  deer  roll  over  dead  ; 
but  I  did  not  fire  at  the  others,  for,  as  a  rule,  I  like  to 
spare  the  hinds. 

When  the  beaters  came  up  we  found  that  the  bag  con- 
sisted of  five  red-deer — namely,  one  small  stag  and  four 
hinds.  The  red-deer  in  Turkey  are  very  large,  and  some 
of  them  have  splendid  heads.  The  hind  I  killed  was  larger 
than  any  stag  I  have  ever  shot  in  Scotland. 

It  was  bitterly  cold  at  this  altitude,  and  yet  there  were 
shepherds  with  their  flocks,  who  sleep  out  with  them  all 
night  without  any  shelter.  These  men  never  leave  their 
sheep  night  or  day,  and  it  must  be  a  hard  life  in  the  win- 
ter months. 

It  was  after  dark  when  we  returned  to  the  khan,  and  we 
were  not  sorry  to  "fall  to"  at  the  excellent  dinner  which 
my  ever-thoughtful  host  had  brought  from  his  farm. 

If  any  of  my  readers  should  think  of  making  a  sporting 
trip,  or  of  traveling  in  Turkey,  I  can  offer  them  the  follow- 
ing hints,  which  are  based  upon  experience : — 

We  will  suppose  that  there  are  two  classes  of  travelers, 
those  who  can  afford  comfort  and  those  who  have  to  con- 
sider every  expense. 

The  first  class  should,  if  possible,  travel  in  pairs,  and 
should  provide  themselves  with  two  emigrant  tents  (one  to 
be  lined),  and  camp  beds  to  their  own  fancy ;  but  ham- 
mocks are  certainly  advisable,  and  if  lessons  are  taken 
from  a  sailor  as  to  the  proper  method  of  slinging  them,  so 
much  the  better  for  the  comfort  of  the  travelers. 
24 


370  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

Each  man  should  have  three  strong  tin  boxes,  made  to 
fit  into  open  wicker  baskets,  with  straps,  so  as  to  ride  one 
on  each  side  of  a  pack-animal.  In  one  tin  box  should  be 
carried  a  bed,  consisting  of  an  eider-down  quilt,  and  air 
jrillow,  a  large  blanket,  and  a  water-proof  sheet.  In  the 
second  tin  box  should  be  packed  clothes  and  ammunition ; 
in  the  third,  a  smaU  luncheon-basket,  fitted  with  knives, 
forks,  spoons,  plates,  wicker-covered  bottles,  receptacles 
for  sugar,  tea,  coffee,  etc.,  etc.,  according  to  fancy,  but 
there  should  certainly  be  an  Etna  for  getting  a  hot  cup  of 
coffee  in  a  hurry.  The  space  left  in  the  third  tin  box  after 
the  luncheon-basket  is  packed  can  be  utilized  for  edible 
stores  by  the  way. 

A  gun  and  rifle  should  be  fitted  in  one  case,  covered 
with  very  strong  water-proof  canvas. 

The  cooking  utensUs,  etc.,  should  consist  of  a  tinned 
copper  pot,  with  a  smaller  one  fitting  inside  it,  a  small, 
strong  copper  kettle,  a  frying-pan,  two  iron  tripods  for 
the  pots,  and  a  water-can  and  tin  basin. 

On  arriving  at  Constantinople  the  travelers  should  en- 
gage an  interpreter,  a  cook,  and  a  servant.  With  these 
and  their  baggage  they  should  make  for  the  point  where 
they  are  to  leave  the  railway,  and  there  purchase  five 
riding-horses,  which  wiU  cost  about  £10  each,  and  five 
pack-animals,  which  will  cost  £6  each. 

They  should  take  their  own  saddles  and  bridles  from 
England,  and  purchase  three  native  saddles  at  Constan- 
tinople for  the  servants,  at  a  cost  of  £1  each. 

When  they  have  finished  their  travels  the  horses  will 
sell  for  as  much  as  they  gave  for  them. 

The  two  travelers  wiU  ride  two  of  the  riding-horses,  the 
interpreter,  cook,  and  servant  the  other  three,  and  it  will 
also  be  necessary  to  engage  a  keradjee,  or  man  to  look 
after  and  drive  the  pack-animals. 

The  loads  should  be  distributed  on  the  pack  horses  as 
follows  : — Nos.  1,  2,  and  3,  two  basketed  tin  boxes  on  each. 
No.  4,  the  tents,  one  on  each  side,  and  the  camp  bedsteads 
on  the  top.     No.  5,  guns,  tent-poles,  and  servants'  beds. 


SIAT5  TO  TEA  VELERS.  371 

The  pack  animals  should  always  be  accompanied  by  the 
cook  and  the  servant. 

Each  of  these  loads  will  weigh  about  180  lbs.,  which  is 
not  considered  much  in  Turkey,  where  the  pack-animals 
usually  carry  180  okes=275  lbs.,  and  travel  from  twenty- 
five  to  thii'ty  miles  a  day.  With  the  light  loads  I  have 
named,  thuty  miles  can  easily  be  accomplished  in  ten 
hours'  traveling,  and  however  wet  the  weather  may  be  the 
packs  will  always  arrive  dry.  With  this  staff  the  travel- 
ers will  be  perfectly  independent  of  all  towns,  khans,  etc., 
and  will  be  free  from  the  pest  of  insects  of  every  variety 
of  size,  color,  and  activity,  with  which  the  tovms  are 
generally  swarming. 

After  an  early  breakfast,  the  tents  should  be  struck, 
packed,  and  seen  off. 

The  travelers  may  then  take  their  leisure,  ride  on  to  any 
toT^Ti  on  their  route  they  may  wish  to  see,  stop  there  a  few 
hours  at  a  khan  for  luncheon,  the  pack-animals  passing 
through  meanwhile  under  guidance  of  a  zaptieh,  or 
mounted  policemen,  who  will  be  a  Turk,  but,  nevertheless, 
a  most  civil,  obliging,  and  honest  man,  and  he  should  be 
given  instructions  where  to  i^itch  the  tents  for  the  night' s 
halt.  The  travelers  may  go  leisurely  on,  and  when  they 
arrive  at  the  rendezvous  they  ought  to  find  the  tents 
pitched,  the  cook  preparing  dinner,  and  everything 
ready  to  receive  them.  Food  for  the  horses  can  be 
bought  at  any  of  the  towns  or  villages  which  may  be 
passed. 

The  zaptiehs  (for  one  should  also  be  taken  as  guide)  may 
be  obtained  at  any  large  town  which  is  the  seat  of  a  Mudir, 
Caimakam,  or  Pasha,  as  the  case  may  be,  by  going  to  the 
konak  and  presenting  the  booyutoo. 

By  this  arrangement  the  luggage  is  so  arranged  that  if 
the  travelers  wish  to  separate  to  make  detours,  and  to 
meet  again,  they  can  do  so. 

In  hot  weather  I  have  always  found  it  a  good  plan  to 
ride  in  woolen  clothes,  such  as  would  be  worn  in  Scotland, 
or  any  other  similar  climate,  for  where  thick  clothes  keep 


372  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

out  the  cold  in  one  case,  they  keep  out  the  sun  in  the 
other,  and  save  the  wearer  from  fever. 

There  is  nothing  equal  to  a  felt  helmet  as  a  covering  for 
the  head. 

In  sleeping  out  in  the  open,  which  may  sometinjes  be 
necessary,  it  is  well  to  cut  some  small  branches  of  any  tree 
which  is  not  prickly,  and  pile  them  one  on  the  other  to  lie 
upon.  They  may  feel  a  little  lumpy  and  angular  toward 
the  middle  of  the  night,  but  it  is  better  than  getting 
rheumatism  from  lying  on  the  bare  ground. 

The  secret  in  traveling  is  always  to  make  yourself  as 
comfortable  as  you  can  under  all  cu-cumstances,  and  to 
make  believe  that  you  are  in  luck. 

The  second  class  of  travelers,  who  have  to  study  econ- 
omy, should  take  an  English  saddle  and  bridle,  and  the 
carpet  saddle-bags  of  the  country,  together  with  a  ham- 
mock, an  eider-down  quilt,  and  an  air  pillow. 

A  change  of  clothes  goes  in  the  saddle-bags,  and  by 
purchasing  one  riding  horse,  the  traveler  can  get  on  with 
his  bed  on  the  back  of  the  saddle,  and  make  thirty  miles 
a  day,  sleeping  at  the  khans,  where  he  should  sling  his 
hammock  in  the  veranda,  and  he  will  by  this  means 
escape  insects.  He  will  require  a  zaptieh  for  a  guide,  and 
his  total  expenses  will  amount  to  about  eight  shillings  a 
day  ;  but  he  will  not  lead  a  luxurious  life..  Let  him  be- 
ware of  the  rooms  in  the  khans,  for  however  well  white- 
washed and  clean  they  may  look  by  day,  a  whole  army 
will  start  out  from  their  ambush  by  night,  and  devour 
him  alive.  The  first  system  of  traveling  will  cost  about 
£1  10s.  per  day  each,  including  every  expense,  if  it  is 
done  very  comfortably. 

On  first  arriving  in  Turkey  a  stranger  is  very  much  puz- 
zled by  the  affirmative  and  negative  signs  of  the  natives. 
A  decided  shake  of  the  head  means  yes,  while  a  nod  of  the 
head  backward  means  no.  I  remember  at  the  commence- 
ment of  my  travels  thinking  that  all  kinds  of  obstacles 
were  being  placed  in  my  way  by  a  khanjee,  because  to 
every  question  of  my  interpreter  the  man  kept  shaking 


HABIT  OF  EXAGGERATIOX.  373 

Jiis  head  ;  but  I  afterward  discovered  tliat  the  poor  man 
was  acquiescing  in  every  demand. 

Reports  concerning  sport — or,  indeed,  about  anything 
where  numbers  are  concerned — must  be  received  with 
great  caution. 

You  hear  of  a  place  where  red-deer,  roe-deer,  boars, 
etc.,  are  said  to  be  very  numerous,  and  you  hasten  to  the 
spot  to  find,  perhaps,  that  the  red-deer  dwindle  down  to  a 
solitary  roe-buck,  and  the  only  boars  are  tame  pigs. 

On  one  occasion,  when  I  was  on  the  Balkan  range,  an 
Armenian  merchant  declared  that  he  knew  of  a  gold  mine 
in  Macedonia,  where  the  precious  metal  could  be  seen 
sticking  out  of  the  rock,  and  that  he  had  cut  off  a  piece 
of  solid  gold  three  inches  long  and  as  thick  as  his 
thumb ! 

I  felt  inclined  to  address  the  man  as  I  once  heard  one 
American  say  to  another  who  had  just  been  drawing  the 
long-bow:  "Sir,  I  have  no  doubt  you  are  speaking  the 
truth,  and  that's  a  fact ;  but  if  I  was  to  meet  you  in  New 
York,  walking  down  the  Fifth  Avenue,  arm  in  arm  with 
Ananias  and  Sapphira,  I  should  take  you  to  be  all  of 
one  family,  that  I  should." 

To  this  habit  of  exaggeration  there  is  also  added,  in 
many  of  the  Christian  population,  a  love  of  sensation  and 
intrigTie. 

This  was  forcibly  brought  to  my  mind  on  my  own 
estate  last  autumn,  and  I  relate  it  as  an  instance  of  how 
very  easy  it  is  in  that  country  to  get  up  a  grievance. 

According  to  custom  at  that  season,  I  had  all  my 
tenants  (Greco-Bulgarians)  assembled,  and  asked  them 
whether  they  had  any  comjolaints,  and  received  a  unani- 
mous reply  in  the  negative.  Shortly  afterward,  to  my 
surprise,  I  received  a  written  document,  purporting  to  be 
signed  by  every  one  of  the  tenants,  and  setting  forth  such 
a  list  of  charges  against  my  agent  (a  Scotchman)  that  it 
would  have  made  a  splendid  handle  for  an  atrocity  agi- 
tation. It  was  all  in  the  usual  "oppression  style"  of  the 
country,  namely,  that  more  than  their  rents  were  exacted 


374  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

from  them  by  force,  that  they  had  to  supply  "  corvee,"  or 
forced  labor,  etc.,  etc.,  and  it  commenced  by  saying  that 
so  tyrannical  were  the  exactions  that  they  were  penniless, 
naked,  and  starving.  I  was  at  first  shocked  at  the  list  of 
charges,  and  was  nnder  the  impression  that  it  might  be 
possible  that  there  was  at  least  some  foundation  for  them, 
but  when  I  came  to  examine  the  document  I  saw  that, 
from  my  j^ersonal  knowledge,  some  of  the  complaints 
were  so  ridiculously  untrue,  that  I  began  to  doubt  the 
whole  of  them.  For  instance,  I  had  just  been  living 
among  these  very  men,  and  so  far  from  their  being  penni- 
less, naked,  and  starving,  they  were  employing  servants 
to  do  their  work,  while  they  sat  half  the  day  idle.  Tliey 
were  even  luxuriously  clothed.  There  was  abundance 
of  bread  baked  by  them  before  my  eyes  daily,  and  their 
farms  were  stocked  with  numerous  turkeys,  geese,  and 
fowls,  besides  which,  each  man  possessed  on  an  average 
ten  head  of  cattle,  and  I  had  told  them  long  before,  that 
if  ever  they  were  in  want  of  food  I  would  advance  them 
flour.  I  have  taken  much  pains  to  improve  these  very 
people,  and  I  was  consequently  greatly  astonished  at  this 
demonstration. 

I  quietly  made  close  inquiries  into  all  the  charges,  and 
found  them  to  be  absolutely  untrue,  except  one,  which 
was  that  they  were  frequently  kept  waiting  when  they 
brought  their  grain-rents  to  my  granary. 

I  appointed  a  day  for  seeing  them  altogether,  and  the 
following  conversation  passed  between  us : — 

"I  have  received  this  written  list  of  complaints  pur- 
porting to  be  signed  by  all  of  you.     Is  that  correct  ? " 

"Yes,  Effendim,  certainly  we  all  signed  it — and  it  is 
true." 

"I  am  very  sorry,  and  much  astonished,  to  find  that 
you  have  so  many  causes  of  complaint,  and  if  they  really 
exist,  I  will  certainly  remove  them.  But  we  will  now  go 
through  them  in  order.  First,  you  state  that  from  the 
exactions  of  my  agent  you  are  penniless,  naked,   and 


MANUFACTURING  A  GRIEVANCE.  375 

"Ha !  lia  !  lia  1  the  Bey  is  joking  with  us  ;  that  is  non- 
sense" (in  a  general  chorus). 

"  N^ay  ;  but  it  is  here,  and  signed  by  all  of  you  ! " 

"No,  no  !  we  never  signed  that ;  why,  it's  foolish  ! " 

I  will  not  weary  the  reader  by  going  on,  but  the  same 
farce  was  acted  throughout.  At  last  I  said,  "  Come,  now, 
what  does  all  this  nonsense  mean — what  is  it  ?  " 

"Effendim,  it  was  that  fellow  made  us  do  it ;  we  are 
quite  comfortable  and  satisfied." 

"  That  fellow  "  was  a  bad  character,  whom  I  had  been 
compelled  to  discharge,  and  he  it  was  who  had  got  up  this 
document,  and  easily  induced  every  man  to  put  his  mark 
to  it  without  knowing  what  they  were  signing ;  and  all 
they  wanted  was  to  try  and  screw  a  little  more  out  of  the 
Bey,  in  the  way  of  loans  of  money,  etc.,  etc.,  by  a  few 
frivolous  complaints. 

They  all  went  away  in  good  humor,  declaring  they 
would  never  listen  to  "that  fellow"  again;  that  they 
were  fools,  etc. 

Anyone  who  is  well  acquainted  with  the  East  will 
thoroughly  understand  this  scene ;  but  what  a  case  of 
"hardship  and  oppression"  might  have  been  manufac- 
tured out  it ! 

When  I  first  entered  Turkey  I  was  told  that  the  Turks 
did  not  like  foreigners  settling  in  their  country,  and  that 
I  should  find  every  possible  impediment  thrown  in  my 
way  by  ofiicials. 

It  is  only  due  to  Turkish  officials,  to  state  that  I  have 
found  it  exactly  the  reverse.  I  have  necessarily  had 
many  transactions  with  them,  as  I  purchased  my  property 
from  the  Government  by  public  auction ;  but  I  have 
found  them  ready  and  willing  to  give  every  assistance, 
and  the  Governor- General  assured  me  that  they  were 
most  anxious  to  get  Englishmen  to  settle  in  the  coun- 
try. 

This  leads  me  to  the  subject  of  taxation,  for  here  I  am 
one  of  those  very  Christians  who  are  reported  to  be  ground 
down  by  extortion  and  taxation  to  the  uttennost  farthing. 


376  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

It  may  be  said  tliat  I,  as  a  foreigner  and  an  Englisliman, 
am  exempt  from  siicli  oppression. 

But  I  am  surrounded  by  large  villages — I  can  count 
nine  from  my  windows — most  of  them  are  Cliristian,  and 
if  there  were  any  gross  cases  of  oppression  I  should  very 
soon  hear  of  it  through  my  own  peoi)le. 

In  three  of  these  villages  the  inhabitants  (Greco-Bulga- 
rians) are  very  prosperous,  and  I  notice  that  their  pros- 
perity varies  in  proportion  to  the  manner  in  which  they 
cultivate  the  land. 

There  is  a  weekly  market  within  half  a  mile  of  my 
house,  which  is  attended  by  over  a  thousand  people, 
Jews,  Turks,  Bulgarians,  and  gypsies,  all  mingling  to- 
gether. And  although  there  are  plenty  of  khans  where 
spirit  can  be  bought  for  a  penny  a  glass,  quarreling  or 
violence  on  such  occasions  is  quite  the  exception ;  in  fact, 
I  have  no  personal  knowledge  of  it.  Robbery  sometimes 
occurs  in  the  neighborhood,  of  course,  as  it  does  in  every 
country.  One  of  my  own  tenants  was  stopped  one  night 
in  a  wild  pass,  and  robbed  of  what  little  money  he  had 
about  him,  but  the  robbers  were  detected  and  punished. 

Since  the  Servian  war,  and  so-called  Bulgarian  rebell- 
ion, order  has  not  been  so  well  maintained,  and  a  number 
of  bad  characters  are  about ;  but  I  have  only  heard  of  re- 
ported robberies  at  a  distance,  and  my  immediate  neigh- 
borhood has  been  quiet  enough.  There  are  many  people 
who  make  it  their  business,  and  have  an  object  in  spread- 
ing false  and  alarming  reports  ;  and  the  cry  of  "wolf  "  is 
so  often  raised  that  it  is  difficult  to  give  credence  to  any- 
thing you  hear.  These  sowers  of  the  seed  of  discord  keep 
up  a  nervous  tension  among  the  inhabitants,  which  is 
productive  of  much  harm,  and  it  unsettles  the  minds  of 
all  classes,  whether  they  are  Turks  or  Christians. 

I  will  now  pass  in  review  the  system  of  taxation  which 
is  levied  upon  the  country. 


CHAPTER  XXI. 

TAXATIO]^r,  ETC, 

What  is  a  Piastre  ? — The  Ashr  or  Tithe — Tltizam  and  Wokalut — Mode  of  As- 
sessing Tithe — Cause  of  Oppression  in  Collecting  Taxes — Proposed  Re- 
form— Mode  of  Valuing  Land — The  Verghi — The  Bedel  or  Haratch — The 
Sayme  or  Sheep-tax — Customs-duties — Turkish  Bonds — Suggestions  to 
Bond-holders. 

IT  is  very  easy,  by  the  use  of  figures,  to  make  the  taxes 
of  any  country  appear  burdensome  and  oppressive. 

In  England  we  have  only  to  unite  the  avocations  of  a 
landed  proprietor,  a  publican,  a  brewer,  and  a  merchant 
in  one  man,  and  we  can  make  out  a  sum  for  taxes  and 
duties  in  proportion  to  income  which  at  first  sight  would 
appear  as  though  the  man  were  the  victim  of  a  wanton 
and  greedy  Government. 

In  Turkey  the  legal  taxes  as  compared  with  those  of 
other  European  States,  are  not  oppressive,  but  in  some 
instances  the  mode  of  collecting  them  is  unjust  and  ruin- 
ous to  the  individual  as  well  as  to  the  State. 

Before  examining  the  taxes,  we  will  first  endeavor  to 
get  a  clear  idea  of  the  currency. 

I  cannot  do  better  than  give  the  words  of  Mr.  Barron 
on  this  point : — 

"What  is  a  piastre?  Stated  alone,  this  is  not  a  deter- 
minate value,  as  there  are  four  different  currencies  in  cir- 
culation, all  called  by  that  name,  but  varying  slightly 
from  each  other  in  value,  and  fluctuating  in  their  rela- 
tive values  to  each  other.  In  Constantinople  and  in  the 
Asiatic  provinces  the  copper  piastre  is  a  legal  tender 
where  it  is  not  otherwise  stipulated,  and  is  often  the  ac- 
tual medium  of  payment  of  Government  salaries,  etc. 

377 


378  TUBEET  IiV  EUROPE. 

"Tliose  wlio  have  interest  enough,  however,  manage  to 
get  their  salaries  paid  in  gold  piastres,  by  which  they 
derive  a  profit  of  10  per  cent,  above  the  smaller  func- 
tionaries. 

"In  some  European  provinces  the  'beslilik  currency — 
an  alloyed  metal,  half  silver,  half  copper — ^is  the  basis  of 
all  transactions. 

"The  current  commercial  medium  of  exchange  is  the 
gold  coin,  commonly  called  Turkish  lira,  divided  officially 
into  100  piastres." 

The  following  are  the  principal  values  reduced  to  their 

equivalents  in  English : — 

£   s.  d. 

L.  T.,  the  Turkish  lira  or  gold  medjidie 0  18  0*64 

P.,  piastre,  the  gold  official,  100  to  L.  T 0    0  3-16 

"        ''       the  beshlik,  105  to  the  L.  T 0    0  2-06 

"         ''       the  copper,  about  110  to  L.T. .. .  0    0  1-97 

Purse,  a  sum  of  500  piastres,  gold 4  10 

The  piastre  is  theoretically  divided  into  40  paras,  but 
the  coins  do  not  exist,  and  the  lowest  circulated  money  in 
the  European  provinces  is  the  quarter  piastre — 10  paras. 

One  of  the  greatest  evils  of  the  currency  system  is  the 
arbitrary  power  given  to  the  governors  of  vilaiets  to  fix 
the  value  in  piastres  of  the  lira  in  their  district. 

The  most  ancient  of  the  Turkish  taxes  is  that  of  the 
Ashr  or  tithe,  the  tax  of  one- tenth  on  all  agricultural 
produce  raised  in  the  country,  especially  on  corn,  oil, 
grapes,  tobacco,  and  cotton.  Many  other  articles — such 
as  timber,  silk,  cocoons,  etc. — are  also  chargeable  to  this 
tax  ;  but  these  tithes  are  levied  and  recorded  under  sepa- 
rate heads.  The  tithe  has  not  been  a  fixed  charge  of  one- 
tenth  ;  in  former  times  it  only  amounted  to  one-fortieth, 
but  that  was  in  the  good  old  times  of  Turkish  history,  be- 
fore corruption  had  eaten  into  the  State.  In  1867,  when  a 
reform  took  place  in  the  property-laws  of  Turkey,  and 
the  freehold  title  to  land  in  default  of  heirs  was  no  longer 
forfeited  to  the  State,  but  could  be  left  by  will,  the  Gov- 
ernment, without  a  particle  of   justice,   claimed,  as  an 


TEE  TITHE.  379 

equivalent  for  tlie  boon,  a  tithe  of  15  per  cent,  for  that 
year,  and  12^  per  cent,  for  the  four  succeeding  years. 
The  tithe  is  now  reduced  to  10  per  cent.  On  com  it  is 
generally  paid  in  kind,  and  on  other  produce  in  money. 

The  tithe  is  not  collected  directly  by  the  Government, 
but  the  right  of  collecting  it  is  sold  annually,  during  the 
spring,  to  the  highest  bidder.  The  speculators  who  pur- 
chase the  tithe  are  called  multeyim,  or  farmers,  and  they 
are  usually  from  the  rayah  class  of  the  country,  and  some- 
times even  foreign  subjects.  A  man  will  buy  the  tithes  of 
a  whole  sandjak,  and  immediately  sell  to  perhaps  four 
others,  at  a  profit  of  50  per  cent.  These  four  again  sell  at 
a  profit,  so  that  a  comparatively  small  portion  of  the  tax 
goes  to  the  benefit  of  the  State,  and  the  producer  is  taxed 
to  make  the  fortunes  of  private  individuals.  This  is  one 
of  the  most  crying  evils  of  Turkish  administration,  and 
until  it  can  be  remedied  the  revenues  of  the  country  can 
never  rise  to  anything  like  their  proper  level.  But  there 
are  great  difficulties  in  dealing  with  this  tax,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  character  and  customs  of  the  people. 

In  theory,  a  direct  Government  collection  naturally 
suggests  itself;  but  it  has  been  tried,  and  has  proved  a 
failure.  The  rayahs  bribed  the  Government  ofiicials  who 
were  to  collect  the  tax,  and  in  other  cases  the  ofiicials  used 
harsh  measures  in  the  collection  ;  the  loss  to  the  Govern- 
ment became  greater  than  ever,  and  the  peasants  prayed 
to  be  placed  under  the  old  regime,  or  Iltizam  system,  as 
it  is  called.  The  WoTcalut,  or  direct  system,  was  also 
tried  in  another  form,  by  commuting  the  annual  amount 
of  the  tithe  of  a  sandjak  for  a  fixed  sum,  payable  directly 
by  the  producers  into  the  local  treasury,  and  based  on 
the  average  of  five  preceding  years.  But  this  did  not  an- 
swer, for  the  peasant-farmer  as  a  rule  lives  from  hand  to 
mouth ;  and  in  a  bad  harvest  the  Government  was  alto- 
gether a  loser,  while  if  the  crops  were  good  it  received 
only  the  revenue  of  an  average  year.  Another  evil  would 
practically  result  from  direct  Government  collection — the 
tax-collector  would  be  accompanied  by  his  police  and 


380  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

other  officials,  wlio  would  live  on  tlie  peasants  during  tlie 
collection.  So  long  as  Turkisli  administration  is  corrupt, 
the  present  system  is  the  only  one  that  can  be  followed. 
The  mode  of  collecting  the  tax  varies  with  locality.  In 
the  vilaiet  of  Salonica,  the  farmer  of  the  tax,  or  his  agent, 
meets  the  producer  on  the  field  where  the  grain  is  lying 
in  stooks.  Each  selects  a  sheaf  here  and  there  about  the 
field.  These  are  taken  to  the  threshing-floors  and  threshed 
in  presence  of  both  parties,  the  amount  of  grain  produced 
is  divided  by  the  number  of  sheaves,  and  is  taken  as  the 
average  produce  from  each  sheaf.  There  are  ten  sheaves 
in  each  stook,  the  number  of  stooks  in  the  field  are 
counted,  and  the  tax-farmer  knows  the  amount  of  grain 
that  is  due  to  him.  Nothing  can  be  fairer  than  such  a 
system,  so  far  as  the  producer  is  concerned.  In  the  case 
of  large  proprietors,  an  agent  of  the  tax-farmer  comes  and 
lives  upon  the  estate  (in  quarters  provided  by  the  proprie- 
tor, who  receives  a  good  rent  for  them)  during  harvest, 
and  there  is  no  difficulty  whatever  in  the  collection  or 
payment.  I  am  now  speaking  from  actual  experience. 
But  in  the  case  of  the  small  peasant-proprietor,  whether 
Turk  or  Christian,  there  are  abuses  which  sometimes  press 
cruelly  and  ruinously  upon  him.  The  tax-farmer  cannot 
be  ubiquitous,  and  naturally  cannot  afford  to  pay  agents 
to  watch  and  gather  every  little  patch  of  grain  ;  he  has, 
therefore,  to  divide  his  district  into  estates,  and  groups  of 
small  farmers. 

While  he  is  collecting  in  one  place,  the  other  has  to 
wait.  The  rayah  will  always  cheat  the  collector,  if  he 
can,  and  very  often  does  so,  and  perhaps  the  delinquent 
is  discovered  in  the  act,  and  the  agent's  time  is  taken  up 
in  securing  his  prisoner;  but  in  the  meantime  another 
small  farmer  is  unable  to  carry  his  grain  to  the  threshing- 
floor  until  the  collector  has  leisure  to  attend  to  him,  and 
his  store  is  diminished  daily  by  innumerable  pigeons  and 
other  birds,  and  at  last  a  storm  of  rain  comes  on,  and  the 
crop  is  spoiled. 

A  cry  is  raised  that  the  tax-farmer  abuses  his  authority, 


THE  TITHE.  381 

and  extorts  more  than  Ms  due  from  the  producer ;  but  in 
reality  it  is  rather  the  other  way,  and  the  producer,  as  a 
rule,  cheats  the  tax-farmer 

I  think  the  tithe  at  its  proper  value  of  one-tenth  is  a 
fair  tax  in  Turkey,  where  the  taxes  on  property  are  so 
slight.  What  is  wanted  is  a  system  that  will  prevent  its 
collection  pressing  hardly  upon  the  small  producer,  and 
ensure  the  whole  of  the  tax  finding  its  way  to  the  Treas- 
ury. 

Owners  of  large  estates  can,  if  they  wish,  buy  their  own 
tithe,  and  it  is  a  profitable  thing  to  do. 

The  tithe  was  placed  on  its  present  footing  in  1846. 
Previous  to  that  time  a  nominal  equivalent  to  it  was  paid 
by  the  peasants,  partly  in  money  and  partly  in  kind,  to 
the  spahis  (beyliks),  ziamets,  and  timars,  the  feudal  lords, 
among  whom  the  land  was  partitioned,  but  who  were  then 
pensioned  off  for  life ;  and  most  of  them  have  now  died 
out.  It  was  under  their  grinding  and  extortionate  op- 
pression that  was  born  the  cry,  which  is  now  so  popular, 
of  Christians  suffeiing  under  Turkish  rule. 

No  State  functionary  is  allowed  to  bid  for  the  tithes, 
either  directly  or  indirectly. 

There  is  a  reform  in  connection  with  this  tax  which  the 
Government  might  adopt  with  profit,  namely,  to  allow  a 
voluntary  commutation  of  the  tax  for  a  fixed  annual 
money-payment,  to  be  settled  for  ten  years  in  advance, 
and  to  be  revised  at  the  end  of  that  period.  If  this  were 
done  in  a  liberal  spirit,  it  would  prove  a  great  benefit  to 
the  country,  and,  consequently,  to  the  State.  For  in- 
stance, a  man  who  now  cultivates  one  hundred  out  of  two 
hundred  acres  which  he  possesses,  would  have  his  tithe 
commuted  for  ten  years  on  an  average  of  produce  for  the 
last  five.  He  would,  consequently,  be  encouraged  to  cul- 
tivate more  land  as  soon  as  he  had  paid  the  commutation, 
and  any  improvement  in  cultivation  which  he  might  make 
would  be  sheer  profit.  This  is  somewhat  similar  to  a  sug- 
gestion put  forward  in  the  admirable  report  from  Mr.  Bar- 
ron (from  which  I  quote  largely),  and  there  is  no  doubt 


TUEKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

that  it  would  be  a  great  boon  to  the  producer.  The  great 
evil  of  the  tithe  system,  as  at  present  arranged,  is  that  it 
taxes  the  gross  and  not  the  net  returns  of  the  producer, 
and  he,  consequently,  is  not  encouraged  to  improve  the 
cultivation  of  his  land. 

Large  tracts  of  land  in  various  parts  of  Turkey,  which 
were  formerly  under  cultivation,  are  now  placed  under 
natural  pasture. 

The  next  tax  to  consider  is  that  known  generally  by  the 
name  of  Verglii,  a  sort  of  property-tax.  It  also  goes  by 
many  other  names,  according  to  locality,  such  as  mahtou, 
kapno,  kefaliatico,  salyane,  emlak,  temrak-verghi,  and 
timettou. 

This  tax  is  fixed  beforehand,  at  a  certain  amount  for 
every  province,  and  it  was  allotted  in  1845  at  the  rate  of 
3s.  7d.  per  head  per  annum  of  the  supposed  population. 

The  sub-allotment  of  the  tax  among  individuals  is  not 
governed  by  any  law  or  fixed  principle,  and  much  depends 
upon  the  province  as  to  the  form  it  takes  ;  sometimes  it 
will  be  that  of  a  property-tax,  in  others  an  income-tax,  or 
house,  or  capitation- tax.  A  valuation  of  property  is  now 
going  on,  with  a  view  to  establishing  a  new  verghi  as  a 
property-tax. 

"In  some  places  the  old  impost  has  been  replaced  by 
two  new  taxes,  or  forms  of  verghi,  called — 

"1.  The  salyane  or  temrak-verglii,  on  real  property. 
This  comprises  {a.)  a  tax  at  the  rate  of  4  per  1,000  per  an- 
num on  the  estimated  fee-simple  value  of  all  lands  and 
houses,  whether  subject  to  tithes  or  not.  (p.)  An  additional 
rate  of  4  per  cent,  per  annum  on  the  estimated  rent  of  the 
same  tenements  if  let  to  tenants.  The  rent  is  assumed  to 
be  10  per  cent,  of  the  rated  value  of  property  under 
Schedule  a.  Proprietors  occupying  their  own  premises 
are  exempt  from  this  rate,  as  is  also  land  subject  to  tithe. 

"  2.  The  timmetou-verghi,  or  income-tax.  This  is  3  per 
cent,  per  annum  on  all  gross  profits  derived  from  invested 
capital.  Government  offices,  and  industry  of  every  kind, 
even  manual  labor :  common  laborers  pay  30  piastres  per 


TEE  YEROni.  383 

annum,  Journeymen  in  regular  trades  from  GO  to  IGO  pias- 
tres, otlier  classes  according  to  their  reputed  means.  The 
same  amount  to  be  levied  annually  for  six  consecutive 
years  (from  1870),  after  which  there  will  be  a  re-valuation 
of  property  and  income.  Religious  orders,  salaries  (paid 
out  of  endowments  and  charitable  funds),  school-masters, 
parish  doctors,  hospital  attendants,  and  also  female  ser- 
vants, are  exempt  from  verghi. 

"  Government  officials  are  now  subject  to  a  deduction  of 
one-fifth  from  their  salaries.  The  new  verghi  is,  in  fact, 
an  income-tax  based  on  certain  fixed  principles.  The  esti- 
mates of  income  are,  of  course,  roughly  made,  and  in  a 
manner  which  in  this  country  would  be  considered  arbi- 
trary. But,  owing  to  the  publicity  with  which  the  com- 
mission makes  its  estimates  in  open  Medjliss,  to  the  facts 
that  every  one  who  chooses  may  be  present,  and  that 
every  one  thus  present,  officially,  privately,  or  intrus- 
ively, thinks  himself  entitled  to  give  his  opinion — the 
result  is  a  verdict  pronounced  by  the  whole  community, 
and  approaches  fairness."  * 

This  is  a  sample  of  the  means  that  are  taken  in  Turkey 
for  arriving  at  a  fair  judgment  by  a  rough-and-ready  sys- 
tem, and  it  cannot,  at  all  events,  be  open  to  the  charge  of 
despotic  tyranny.  That  the  taxes  are  not  over-burden- 
some on  landed  proprietors  under  the  present  arrange- 
ment, may  be  gathered  from  the  fact  that  an  estate  of 
4,000  acres,  of  which  1,300  acres  are  under  cultivation, 
pays  only  £50  per  annum  for  all  taxes,  tithe  excepted. 

Considering  the  amount  of  the  tithe,  this  is  adequate, 
but  not  oppressive. 

The  valuation  of  the  fee-simple  of  the  land  is  effected  as 
follows : — Three-tenths  of  the  produce  of  the  estate  is  as- 
sumed as  a  rent.  Twenty  times  the  value  of  these  three- 
tenths  is  set  down  as  the  fee-simple  value  of  the  land. 
Upon  this  assumed  value  the  salyane  of  4  per  1,000  is 
levied. 

The  surveyor,  however,  does  not  take  as  the  unit  of 

*  Mr.  Barron's  Report,  1870. 


384  TURKEY  m  EUROPE. 

Ms  calculation  the  actual  tenth,  but  one  deducted  by  the 
rule  of  proportion  from  the  sum  at  which  tJie  titlie  is  sold. 
Between  this  sum  and  the  real  value  of  the  tithe  there  are 
the  accumulated  profits  of  the  head  and  submulteyims,  or 
tithe-farmers.     Hence  the  Government  is  a  heavy  loser.* 

By  the  old  verghi  the  poorer  classes  had  to  make  good 
the  sum  requh-ed  for  the  province,  and  had  to  pay  for  all 
those  (and  there  were  many)  who  contrived  to  evade  the 
tax.  By  tlie  new  system  the  poorer  classes  will  benefit, 
because  they  will  pay  only  in  proportion  to  their  means. 
Whether  the  Government  will  be  a  gainer  or  loser  remains 
to  be  seen. 

It  would  be  a  fatal  mistake  to  attempt  to  institute  a 
land-tax  in  Turkey  instead  of  the  tithe.  Not  half  the 
land  in  the  country  is  cultivated,  and  a  land-tax  would 
ruin  the  proprietor,  both  large  and  small.  The  result 
would  be  that  it  would  not  be  paid. 

The  next  tax  for  consideration  is  the  Bedel,  which,  like 
the  verghi,  also  passes  under  different  names,  according 
to  locality,  such  as  askerie,  haratch,  nefouz,  parassi, 
imdadie,  ajidzye,  nizamie,  and  bedelat. 

It  is  paid  by  the  non-Mussulman  subjects  of  the  Porte, 
in  consideration  for  their  exem^^tion  from  military  service. 
The  last  official  estimates  of  its  yield  gave  an  annual  sum 
of  £580,432.  The  tax  is  levied  on  different  principles,  as 
well  as  under  different  names.  In  some  provinces  it  is 
fixed  at  a  certain  amount,  like  the  verghi,  and  then 
allotted  by  the  Government  among  the  different  creeds  ; 
in  others  it  is  collected  by  the  Government  itself  from 
individuals,  after  a  certain  fixed  scale.  In  general,  how- 
ever, it  is  allotted  beforehand  on  the  basis  of  the  supposed 
population  of  a  district. 

A  rough  estimate  of  the  population  of  some  districts 
was  made  in  1854  for  this  purpose.  It  was  then  laid 
down  that  the  annual  levy  for  the  nizam,  or  regular 
army,  should  be  one  recruit  for  every  180  male  adults,  or 
five  and  a  half  per  1,000,  and  that  the  rayah  population 

*  Mr.  Barron's  Eeport,  1870. 


THE  HA  TT-l-EUMA  TO  UN.  385 

should  furnisli  their  contingent  in  money,  at  the  rate  of 
5,000  piastres  (£41  12s.),  instead  of  one  recruit.  This 
would  come  to  a  tax  of  21-^^  piastres,  or  about  5s.  lOd.  per 
head  per  annum  for  each  Christian.  And  this  is  the  tax 
about  which  such  an  outcry  is  made  abroad,  and  it  is 
called  an  injustice  to  the  Christians,  who  have  to  pay  5s. 
lOd.  per  annum  for  exemption  from  military  service, 
while  it  costs  a  Mussulman  from  £45  to  £90  to  escape 
similar  service ! 

The  Hatt-i-humayoun  of  1856  distinctly  laid  down  that 
Christians  as  well  as  Mussulmans  should  be  admitted  into 
the  army ;  but  the  law  has  never  been  complied  with,  and 
the  reason  given  by  Fuad  Pasha  on  the  18th  of  February, 
1866,  was  the  following  : — "  The  actual  admission  of  non- 
Mussulman  subjects  into  the  Ottoman  army  has  met  with 
obstacles  resulting  almost  exclusively  from  the  repug- 
nance felt  by  the  same  for  military  service.  But  the 
Government,  far  from  having  renounced  the  execution  of 
this  measure,  which  is  all  to  the  advantage  of  the  Mussul- 
mans, who  now  alone  pay  the  '  tax  of  blood,'  is  studying 
a  method  for  introduciQg  the  non-Mussulman  element, 
either  by  means  of  voluntary  engagement,  or  by  other 
conditions  calculated  to  remove  existing  jealousies  or 
repugnance.  There  exists,  moreover,  already  in  the  Otto- 
man army  two  regiments  of  mixed  Cossacks,  composed  of 
Mussulmans  and  Christians." 

Mr.  Barron,  remarking  upon  this  tax,  says:  "The 
present  form  of  conscription  in  Turkey  is  certainly  the 
most  suicidal  of  all  their  taxes,  falling,  as  it  does,  not  on 
the  whole  population,  but  on  one-half  of  it,  and  on  that 
half  which  constitutes  the  mainstay  of  the  empire.  The 
rich  Turks  and  towns-people  manage  to  shii^k  this  tax  in 
whole  or  in  part.  The  Capital,  by  an  unwise  and  illegal 
privilege,  is  totally  exempt  from  the  conscription  and 
hedel.  Millions  of  Arabs,  Kurds,  and  other  nomads,  laugh 
at  this  and  all  other  taxes.  The  poor  Turkish  peasant^ 
loyal,  laborious,  uncomplaining,  and  unfriended — pays  for 
everybody.  To  him  the  loss  of  his  able-bodied  sons  may 
25 


386  TURKEY  IN  EUROFE. 

be  absolute  ruin.  This  is  no  sentimental  grievance,  bnt 
a  crying  injustice,  which  is  gradually  sapping  the  strength 
of  the  emx)ire.  Everything  tends  to  prove  that  the  so- 
called  dominant  race  is  yearly  dwindling  away  under  the 
action  of  this  cause." 

The  next  tax  is  that  of  the  sayme,  on  sheep  and  goats. 

This  is  a  tax  originally  assessed  on  sheep  and  goats,  but 
subsequently  extended  to  swine,  and  in  some  districts  to 
cattle.  It  is  called  by  the  various  other  names  of  djelleb, 
aghnam,  korgoum-rossoumi,  djanovar-rossoumi,  kume- 
hour,  and  tchoban.  It  may  be  supposed  to  be  an  equiv- 
alent, imposed  on  pasture-lands,  for  the  tithe  which  is 
payable  on  arable  land,  and  was,  before  1858,  paid  in 
kind,  at  the  rate  of  one  in  every  ten  sheep.  Since  then  a 
money-payment  has  been  generally  established,  calcu- 
lated at  10  per  cent,  on  the  average  value  of  the  sheep. 

In  Bulgaria  the  average  price  of  mutton  was,  in  1870, 
two  piastres  an  oke  =  1  tt  P©^  pound.  At  Salonica  it  is 
now  from  3d.  to  4d.  per  pound,  and  the  mutton  is  good. 

The  sheep-tax  is  fixed  at  different  rates  for  different 
provinces,  but  is  everywhere  put  up  to  competition  and 
sold  to  speculators. 

In  addition  to  the  sayme,  flock-owners  are  subject  to 
another  charge,  called  arniatiJca,  which  consists  of  an  oke 
of  butter  and  an  oke  of  cheese  for  every  ten  ewes  or  she- 
goats,  and  a  lamb  for  every  fifty  sheep,  annually  pre- 
sented, together  with  a  contribution  of  fowls  from  the 
villagers  to  the  effendi,  bey,  or  lord  of  the  manor.  This 
is  a  remnant  of  the  old  tax  called  spaliilik,  which  was 
paid  to  the  holders  of  beyliks,  ziamets,  and  timars. 

In  the  European  provinces  lambs  do  not  pay  the  tax 
until  they  are  shearlings.  Swine  are  taxed  at  the  rate  of 
from  three  to  ten  piastres  a  head,  according  to  locality. 
Horned  cattle  used  for  draught  are  not  taxed,  but  two 
and  a  half  piastres  a  head  is  sometimes  claimed  on  the 
sale  of  both  oxen  and  horses.  The  sheep-  and  swine-tax 
is  a  difficult  one  to  collect,  and  it  is  evaded  wherever  possi- 
ble.   It  comes  heavily  on  the  sheep-farmer ;  but  the  profits 


CUSTOMS  D  UTIE8.  387 

from  that  system  of  farming  are  great  in  Turkey,  and  en- 
able the  impost  to  be  borne  without  oppression  ;  but  as  a 
question  of  political  economy  it  is  pernicious,  as  it  is  de- 
rived from  producing-animals. 

This  concludes  the  taxes  of  Turkey,  and  we  now  come 
to  the  customs  duties.  Upon  this  point  Mr.  Barron  says  : 
"The  Turkish  tariff  is  certainly  more  moderate  than  those 
of  either  France  or  Belgium ;  but  on  the  other  hand  it 
includes  transit  and  export  duties,  which  in  those  coun- 
tries practically  do  not  exist,  and  an  eight  per  cent,  duty 
on  all  imports  of  every  description,  whereas  in  France 
and  Belgium  many  of  the  chief  articles  of  support  are 
exempt  from  duty.  Moreover,  in  Turkey  the  customs 
revenue  includes  a  charge  of  eight  per  cent,  on  all  native 
produce  passing  from  one  Turkish  port  to  another." 

In  comparing  the  customs  revenue  with  the  population, 
Mr.  Barron  is  of  opinion  that  in  Turkey  the  return  should 
be  double  what  it  really  is.  This  is  probably  owing  to  the 
system  of  backshish,  which  is  practised  to  an  abominable 
extent  in  every  custom-house  in  the  empire,  and  it  has 
become  such  a  habit  that  it  is  followed  openly. 

The  eight  per  cent,  duty  on  articles  of  native  produce 
passing  from  one  i)ort  to  another  has  happily  been  re- 
moved, as  it  was  a  most  suicidal  measure.  For  instance, 
a  farmer  who  held  land  on  the  coast  of  a  bay,  with  a  mar- 
ket town  on  the  opposite  shore,  only  two  miles  off  by  sea, 
could  not  send  his  gTain  to  market  by  water  without  pay- 
ing an  import-duty  of  eight  per  cent.,  while  if  he  sent  it 
by  land,  which  might  be  a  distance  of  fifty  miles,  he  paid 
no  duty  !  In  this  case  the  farmer  could  not  cultivate  his 
land  with  profit,  as  he  must  either  be  charged  with  eight 
per  cent,  on  his  produce,  or  with  the  long  and  ruinous 
land  carriage.  This  duty  has  been  reduced  to  one  per  cent. 
for  most  sea-port  towns,  but  it  has  not  yet  been  entirely 
removed.  All  exports  to  foreign  countries  pay  a  duty  of 
only  one  per  cent. 

In  Appendix  F,  I  give  some  interesting  remarks  and 
statistics  by  Mr.  Barron. 


388  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

On  examining  these  statistics,  the  thought  naturally 
arises  as  to  what  would  be  the  consequences  if  exclusive 
Russia  had  command  of  the  Bosphorus  and  Dardanelles, 
instead  of  Turkey  ? 

Since  1873  tobacco  and  salt  in  Turkey  have  been  made 
a  Government  monopoly,  and  experience  is  beginning  to 
prove  the  un^visdom  of  such  an  order. 

There  is  a  duty  on  title-deeds,  tapou,  which  are  now  de- 
livered to  the  purchaser  of  real  estate  by  the  Government : 
this  duty  amounts  to  the  small  sum  of  9  piastres  for  each 
title-deed. 

The  duties  on  spirits  and  vdne  are  variable  ;  on  the  for- 
mer it  has  risen  fi'om  10  to  20  per  cent. 

Since  1870  a  new  regulation  has  been  made  with  regard 
to  stamps.  K"ow,  all  contracts  to  be  binding  must  be 
stamj)ed  on  paper,  which  can  be  purchased  from  the  Gov- 
ernment. 

It  wiU  be  seen  that  much  remains  to  be  done  in  purify- 
ing the  taxation  and  collection  of  duties  in  Turkey,  but 
very  great  strides  have  been  made  in  reform,  if  we  look 
back  twenty  years  in  the  history  of  the  country. 

The  outcry  of  oppressive  taxation  is  greatly  exaggerated, 
but  that  hardships  exist  in  the  collection  there  is  no  doubt. 
The  reason  that  the  rayah  finds  the  burden  of  taxation  so 
heavy  is  almost  entirely  his  own  fault,  or,  rather,  I  should 
say,  the  fault  of  his  religion.  The  Greek  Church  ordains 
180  feast-  and  fast-days  out  of  the  year,  on  which  the 
strict  Catholic  or  the  lazy  man  need  not  work — nearly  half 
the  year !  "VYhen  he  does  work,  he  cultivates  the  land  in 
a  most  careless  manner.  Under  such  circumstances,  it  is 
hardly  matter  of  surprise  that  taxes  should  press  heavily. 
The  Government  on  their  side  are  to  blame  for  not  making 
and  Jceeping  up  roads  of  communication  by  which  the  pro- 
duce of  land  may  be  brought  to  market. 

By  neglecting  this  duty  the  Porte  locks  up  her  wealth 
and  puts  the  key  in  her  pocket. 

There  are  hundreds  of  thousands  of  acres  of  the  richest 
land  in  the  world,  which  might  be  cultivated  with  profit  if 


BAD  ROADS.  389 

there  were  good  roads  of  communication,  but  as  it  is,  all 
tlie  bulk  of  tlie  traffic  of  the  country  lias  to  be  done  by 
pack-animals  instead  of  wheeled  carriages.  One  horse 
would  drag  in  a  cart  as  much  as  four  horses  could  carry  ; 
the  consequence  is,  that  food  has  to  be  groA\Ti  to  feed  three 
horses  instead  of  one.  The  horse  is  useless  for  purposes 
of  food,  and  therefore  this  unnecessary  exx3enditure  of  la- 
bor to  provide  his  keep  and  to  rear  him  is  sheer  loss  to  the 
State  and  people,  and  may  be  set  down  at  many  millions 
of  pounds.  Again,  the  country  is  not  adequately  popu- 
lated per  square  mile  of  area,  consequently  labor  is  to  a 
certain  extent  deficient ;  therefore,  if  means  were  taken  to 
reduce  the  number  of  horses  used  for  traffic,  it  would  also 
reduce  the  number  of  men  who  are  employed  to  attend  to 
them,  and  would  leave  the  surplus  for  the  profitable  culti- 
vation of  the  enormous  amount  of  rich  but  waste  lands. 

To  give  some  idea  of  the  loss  this  must  entail  upon  the 
country,  I  will  instance  my  own  case.  My  estate  is  only 
eight  miles  from  Salonica,  and  five  years  ago  the  magnifi- 
cent highway  road  to  Seres  was  made,  and  passes  close  to 
the  property.  The  road  has  never  been  touched  from  that 
day  to  this,  and  is  now  impassable  for  wheeled  carriages. 
The  consequence  is,  that  although  I  have  an  excellent 
market  only  eight  miles  off,  I  must  send  all  my  grain  to  it 
on  pack-animals,  and  for  that  short  distance  it  costs  me 
6  per  cent,  on  the  value  of  the  gTain,  while  with  wheeled 
carriages,  and  the  road  in  order,  the  cost  would  be  only 
1  per  cent.  Here  is  a  sheer  and  unnecessary  loss  of  5  per 
cent,  on  the  produce  of  one  farm.  And  in  this  sense,  that 
which  is  a  loss  to  the  producer  is  indii-ectly  a  proportion- 
ate loss  to  the  Government. 

K  some  of  the  many  millions  which  were  borrowed  by 
Turkey  had  been  spent  in  making  canals  and  roads  of 
communication,  and  'keeping  them,  in  order^  instead  of 
being  squandered  on  the  huge  palaces  at  the  capital,  the 
country  would  have  been  able  to  meet  her  liabilities,  and 
would  have  had  revenue  to  spare  to  strengthen  her  for  the 
war  which  is  probably  approaching. 


390  TURKEY  m  EUROPE. 

In  Appendix  F,  I  give  the  year  of  issue,  nominal  capital, 
tlie  interest  per  cent.,  and  tlie  issue -price  of  tlie  foreign 
loans  of  Turkey. 

By  a  decree  of  the  Government,  October  6,  1875,  the  in- 
terest of  the  debt  was  reduced  for  a  time  to  one-half  of 
the  stipulated  amount,  but  the  foreign  loan  of  1855,  issued 
under  the  guarantee  of  Great  Britain  and  France,  was  not 
affected  by  the  decree  ordering  the  reduction  of  interest. 

The  liabilities  of  Turkey  are  so  great,  and  her  expenses 
in  connection  with  foreign  troubles  are  so  large,  that  she 
is  not  likely  to  be  able  to  pay  the  interest  of  her  debt 
under  ordinary  circumstances,  but  it  seems  to  me  that 
there  is  a  plan  which  might  meet  the  difficulty,  and  be  a 
benefit  not  only  to  the  bond-holders,  but  to  Turkey  herself . 

Turkey  is  in  possession  of  prodigious  natural  and  un- 
developed wealth  in  the  form  of  extremely  rich  Govern- 
ment lands,  forests,  and  mines.  The  extent  of  these  lands, 
especially  in  Asia  Minor,  is  enormous.  The  value  of  the 
virgin  mines  is  supposed  by  competent  authorities  to  be 
very  great,  and  the  forests  are  there  to  speak  for  them- 
selves. At  present  all  these  riches  are  undeveloped,  and 
therefore  do  not  benefit  either  the  Government  or  the 
subjects  of  Turkey.  They  merely  require  roads  of  com- 
munication, and  capital  to  be  invested  upon  them,  to  bring 
forth  all  their  wealth. 

The  broad  outline  of  the  plan  I  would  suggest  is  the 
unification  of  the  whole  of  the  Turkish  debt,  and  the 
appointment  of  a  Commission  to  rej^resent  the  bond- 
holders, who  should  subscribe  5  per  cent,  on  the  nominal 
value  of  their  bonds,  to  be  paid  in  equal  annual  install- 
ments, extending  to  five  years,  and  to  receive  for  such 
deposits  what  might  be  called  "Turkish  Estate  Shares." 

This  would  give  on  the  one  side  a  Commission  with  a 
capital  of  £9,200,000  to  represent  the  bond-holders,  and  on 
the  other  there  would  be  the  Porte,  which  on  its  side 
should  agree  to  capitalize  the  interest  of  the  whole  debt 
over  ten  years,  and  in  lieu  thereof  to  let  to  the  Commis- 
sion, on  a  lease  of  100  years,  Government  lands,  mines. 


TUEEISE  BONDS.  391 

and  forests,  to  tlie  value  of  the  capitalized  ten  years'  in- 
terest of  the  debt.  These  lands,  mines,  and  forests  should 
represent  the  "Turkish  Estate  Shares"  of  the  bond-hold- 
ers. The  Porte  also  to  claim  that,  at  the  end  of  ten  years, 
she  should  pay  only  6  per  cent,  on  her  unified  debt. 

The  agreement  between  the  two  parties  would  be  this  : 
That  the  Porte  should  grant  annually  a  certain  sum,  to  be 
determined  upon  and  to  be  expended  under  the  du-ection 
of  a  joint  committee  appointed  by  the  Porte  and  the  Com- 
mission, for  the  purpose  of  making  and  maintaining  roads 
of  communication  to  the  estates,  mines,  forests,  etc.,  which 
had  been  granted  to  the  Commission.  That  the  Commis- 
sion, on  their  side,  should  agree  to  develop  these  estates, 
and  pay  the  usual  tithes  and  taxes  on  the  land,  and  a 
royalty  on  the  produce  of  the  mines.  The  result  of  this 
arrangement  would  be  that  for  ten  years  the  Porte  would 
be  relieved  of  the  interest  of  the  debt,  and  after  that  date 
would  pay  5  per  cent,  on  the  whole  amount.  She  would 
have  £9,200,000  spent  in  developing  her  rich  country,  and 
the  very  fact  of  this  capital  flowing  in,  would,  under  the 
circumstances,  establish  confidence,  and  attract  more 
foreign  capital  to  be  invested  in  the  country.  This  rapid 
development  would  bring  a  proportionate  amount  of  reve- 
nue, and  enable  the  Porte  at  the  end  of  the  ten  years  to 
meet  her  reduced  liabilities. 

The  bond-holders,  on  their  part,  would  be  in  possession 
of  valuable  estates,  mines,  and  forests,  which  would  with- 
out doubt  give  them  a  very  large  return,  and  this  return 
would  go  on  increasing  in  value  for  100  years.  At  the  end 
of  ten  years  they  would  probably  also  receive  interest  at 
5  per  cent,  on  their  bonds,  which  they  would  still  liold. 
Under  present  arrangements,  they  will  certainly  get  no 
interest  for  their  investment,  and  their  bonds  will  be  only 
so  much  waste  paper.  I  am  not  a  bond-holder  myself, 
so  that  I  am  quite  a  disinterested  party  to  such  a  pro- 
posal ;  but  I  submit  it  for  the  consideration  of  those  who 
are. 
In  Appendix  F,  I  give  some  statistics  of  the  average 


392  TURRET  m  EUROPK 

value  of    Imports  and  Exports  of  Turkey,  and  of  the 
Revenue  returns. 

We  see  here  a  decrease  in  the  revenue  of  upward  of 
three  millions  sterling,  and  it  is  significant  that  the  only 
items  of  increase  are,  spirits,  judicial  taxes  or  fines,  and 
tapous,  or  tax  on  the  transfer  of  lands,  which  certainly 
does  not  point  to  prosi)erity.  I  believe  (and  I  know  that 
I  am  borne  out  in  my  opinion  by  many  competent  author- 
ities in  Turkey)  that  this  decrease  in  revenue  is  greatly 
attributable  to  the  demoralizing  effects  of  the  large  foreign 
loans,  which  have  induced  Turkish  capitalists  to  fly  to  the 
attractions  of  the  Stock  Exchange,  instead  of  investing 
their  capital  in  the  country.  Many  landed  proprietors 
have  sold  their  estates  simply  for  this  purpose;  others 
have  invested  every  farthing  they  could  scrape  together 
in  the  same  channel,  to  the  detriment  of  their  estates,  and 
consequently  of  their  tenants,  who  have  languished  for 
want  of  support. 

The  worst  aspect  of  the  case  is  that  much  of  this  money 
passes  into  the  hands  of  foreign  speculators,  and  leaves 
the  country,  which  thus  becomes  impoverished. 

Travel  where  you  will,  in  any  part  of  Turkey,  and  in 
every  small  town  you  will  find  many  of  the  wealthiest 
people  who  can  think  and  talk  of  nothing  else  but  Turk- 
ish bonds  ;  and  there  is  quite  a  feverish  excitement  on  the 
subject.  The  whole  gear  of  the  commercial  machinery  of 
the  country  is  put  out  of  working  order  by  this  species  of 
excitement,  and  when  money  cannot  be  obtained  by  fair 
means,  it  is  too  often  found  by  venality. 

With  a  sort  of  blind  fatuity,  the  people  insisted  upon 
believing  that  the  Porte  would  meet  her  liabilities,  and 
thus,  when  the  crisis,  which  might  have  been  anticipated, 
was  at  length  realized,  all  trade  and  enterprize  was  para- 
lyzed. 

In  1874-75  and  1875-76  a  reform  in  the  finances  was 
instituted  by  the  verification  of  the  Budget  under  a  Spe- 
cial Commission  of  eight  members,  including  five  Turkish 
high  functionaries  and  the  manager  of  the  Ottoman  Bank. 


FmAyCIAL  REFORMS.  393 

In  Finance,  like  all  other  branches  of  administration, 
Turkey  has  made  great  reforms  within  the  last  thirty 
years ;  but  there  is  no  doubt  that,  notwithstanding  the 
reforms  which  have  been  promulgated,  the  officials  and 
admmistrators  generally  are  more  corrupt  now  than  they 
were  then,  and  until  some  purifying  process  can  be  estab- 
lished, it  is  impossible  that  the  affairs  of  the  country  can 
be  properly  conducted.  It  is  only  of  late  years  that  the 
Porte  has  rendered  any  account  at  aU  of  the  enormous 
sums  which  she  borrowed,  and  of  her  annual  revenue  and 
expenditure.  A  large  amount  of  the  venality  which  has 
existed,  emanated,  without  doubt,  from  the  example  set 
at  the  palace  under  Sultan  Abdul  Aziz,  and  it  remains  to 
be  seen  what  reforms  are  to  take  place  in  that  quarter 
Tinder  the  present  Sultan. 


CHAPTER  XXII. 

AGRICULTUKE. 

Divisions  of  Landed  Property — Vacouf — Mulk  and  Gedik — Miri— Villago 
Lands — Title  to  Land  in  Turkey — Mode  of  Transfer — CMfiiks — Tenants 
and  Laborers — Impediments  to  good  Cultivation — Value  of  Labor — Care- 
less Cultivation. 

T  AND-TENURE  in  Turkey  commenced  with  tlie  con- 
-L-^  quest  of  the  country,  and  the  division  of  the  land  into 
Yacouf  or  Church  property,  private  lands,  and  domain 
lands. 

Yacouf  Peopeety  is  that  which  belongs  to  the  mosques 
and  other  religious  institutions,  and  to  benevolent  founda- 
tions. 

It  is  administered  by  a  special  department  of  the  State, 
called  the  Evkaf,  and  it  consists  of  two  classes : — 

1st.  Property,  or  its  produce,  actually  belonging  to 
such  ecclesiastical  establishments,  and  held  and  received 
on  their  account  by  the  Evkaf ;  and 

2nd.  Property  owned  by  private  persons,  but  lapsing, 
in  default  of  direct  heirs  of  the  owner,  to  the  Evkaf,  and 
subject  in  the  meantime  to  a  small  yearly  contribution 
payable  to  that  department ;  but  an  owner  of  Vacouf 
property  having  no  dii'ect  heirs,  is  not  debarred  from  sell- 
ing it  to  a  person  having  such  heirs,  and  so  preventing  it 
for  the  time  from  falling  into  the  Evkaf.  By  a  recent  law 
a  private  person  holding  Yacouf  property  can,  on  pay- 
ment of  certain  fees  to  the  Government,  have  it  converted 
into  what  is  called  mulkieli — a  title  which  gives  the  holder 
the  fee-simple  of  the  land,  to  do  with  it  as  he  pleases,  to 
leave  it  by  will,  and  in  default  of  his  doing  so,  it  passes  to 
his  next  heir. 

394 


LAND.  395 

Private  Peoperty,  or  77iul7c.  This  is  equivalent  to 
freehold  property  in  England.  The  owner  now  gets  a 
title  dii'ect  from  the  Government,  and  the  property  is 
registered  in  his  name. 

By  a  recent  law  it  can  be  left  by  will,  and  in  default  of 
assignation,  it  goes  to  the  next  of  kin. 

A  new  addition  to  the  facilities  of  transfer  of  this  kind 
of  proj)erty  has  lately  been  enacted,  by  which  the  mulk 
becomes  what  is  termed  ged'ik.  The  owner  of  the  mulk 
sells  it  to  a  purchaser,  resei-ving  either  to  himseK  or  to 
some  one  else,  a  perpetual  charge  upon  it.  The  pur- 
chaser receives,  under  these  circumstances,  a  gedik  title. 

The  o^vner  of  the  mulk  may,  by  the  gedik  title-deed, 
either  prescribe  the  manner  in  which  the  property  shall 
descend,  or  he  may  put  it  out  of  his  power  to  do  so  ;  but 
in  the  former  case  the  Turkish  Government  reserves  to 
itself  the  power  of  compelling  the  proprietor  of  the  mulk 
to  discharge  this  restriction  on  payment  by  the  gedik  of  a 
fixed  fee. 

It,  therefore,  comes  to  this — that  the  owner  of  a  free- 
hold estate  or  mulk  can  sell  it,  and  at  the  same  time 
encumber  it  with  a  perpetual  charge,  in  which  case  the 
property  ceases  to  be  mulk,  and  becomes  gedik.  Gedik  is, 
therefore,  a  species  of  mortgage. 

The  Domain  LA:riDS.  These,  at  the  conquest  of  the 
country,  were  divided  into — 

1.  Miri^  or  those  which  were  appropriated  to  the  State 
Treasury. 

2.  Unoccupied  or  waste  lands. 

3.  The  private  demesne  of  the  sultan. 

4.  Escheated  and  forfeited  lands. 

5.  The  appanages  of  the  valideh-sultana  (sultan's  mo- 
ther) and  other  members  of  the  blood  royal. 

6.  Lands  assigned  to  the  offices  filled  by  viziers. 

7.  Lands  assigned  to  pashas  of  the  second  rank. 

8.  Lands  assigned  to  the  ministers  and  officers  of  the 
palace. 

9.  The  military  fiefs  of  beyliks,  ziamets,  and  timars. 


396  TURRET  m  EUROPE. 

Tlie  designation  of  these  lands  explains  tlieir  character  ; 
but  some  remarks  are  necessary  concerning  the  second, 
fourth,  and  ninth. 

In  Turkey  the  traveler  frequently  meets  with  large  vil- 
lages, the  inhabitants  of  which  cultivate  the  adjoining 
land,  and  if  he  asks  to  whom  it  belongs,  he  is  told  that  it 
is  milage  projperty,  and  that  the  title  to  such  lands  is  a 
most  complicated  affair.  The  explanation  of  the  matter 
is  as  follows : — These  village  lands  have  grown  out  of 
No.  2  of  the  domain  property — namely,  the  unoccupied  or 
waste  lands. 

By  the  Turkish  law  any  one  may  settle  upon  the  waste 
lands  ;  and  if  he  pays  a  fee,  varying  from  9d.  to  Is.  6d.  per 
acre,  builds  a  house  upon  it,  cultivates  it,  lives  there,  and 
pays  tithes  for  twenty  years,  he  can  then  get  a  Govern- 
ment title  to  his  estate,  and  he  can  make  it  mulk  or  free- 
hold. But  the  complicated  part  of  the  situation  has  to 
come.  When  the  squatter  occupies  his  land,  and  builds 
his  house,  he  is  granted  the  right  of  grazing  a  certain 
number  of  animals  (in  proportion  to  the  land  he  cultivates) 
upon  the  waste  lands  which  lie  around  him,  w^hich  fre- 
quently produce  excellent  grass.  He  can  always  increase 
the  size  of  his  estate  by  taking  in  more  of  these  waste 
lands,  paying  the  fee,  and  cultivating  them,  and  after 
twenty  years  gets  a  title.  But  supposing  several  other 
squatters  settle  around  himi  They  also  have  the  same 
rights  of  grazing  on  the  waste  lands,  which  become  what 
is  termed  mira^  and  are  equivalent  to  our  common  lands. 

The  small  farms  grow  in  number  until  they  become  a  vil- 
lage, and  perhaps  a  town,  and  as  they  increase  in  number 
so  does  the  area  of  mira.  The  title  to  such  lands  frequently 
becomes  complicated,  because  the  owner  may  have  sold 
his  right  before  the  expiration  of  the  twenty  years'  pay- 
ment of  tithe — before,  in  fact,  he  had  any  legal  right  to 
the  land.  The  only  property,  therefore,  which  a  foreigner 
should  think  of  buying  is  that  of  mulk,  or  freehold,  or  that 
called  Yacouf,  which  can  now  be  converted  into  mulk. 

The  escheated  or  forfeited  lands  arose  from  the  former 


TITLE-DEEDS.  397 

practice  of  tlie  Government  to  seize  private  property  in 
cases  of  perversion  from  the  faith  of  Islam,  and  certain 
violations  of  tlie  law  ;  but  this  practice  has  been  abolished. 
The  land  belonging  to  the  military  fiefs  has  passed  to  the 
Government,  who  abolished  the  species  of  tenure  during 
the  reign  of  Sultan  Mahmoud,  and  the  holders  of  it  were 
pensioned  off,  and  are  now  nearly  extinct. 

In  1867  a  law  was  passed  granting  foreigners  the  right 
of  holding  real  property  in  Turkey.  Previous  to  that 
date,  any  foreigner  who  wished  to  hold  real  property  had 
to  employ  an  Ottoman  subject  to  purchase  it  in  his  own 
name,  and  then  sign  a  document  binding  him  to  pay  the 
purchasing  foreigner  the  purchase-money  of  the  estate. 
This  unsatisfactory  state  of  affairs  was  done  away  with 
by  a  Firman,  which  I  give  in  Appendix  G. 

All  title-deeds  now  emanate  from  the  Government,  and 
are  registered.  The  process  of  transfer  of  landed  property 
is  very  simple  tind  expeditious.  The  seller  and  purchaser 
having  agreed  as  to  terms,  they  proceed  to  the  konak  or 
Government-house  of  the  district,  m  which  all  the  Courts 
are  concentrated.  There,  before  vdtnesses,  the  owner 
proves  his  identity,  and  hands  over  the  title-deeds  to  the 
Government  officials.  The  purchaser  pays  the  purchase- 
money  on  the  spot,  before  witnesses,  to  the  seller,  and  the 
Government  hands  him  in  return  a  paper  setting  forth  the 
name,  situation,  and  extent  of  the  estate,  by  what  it  is 
bounded,  etc.  The  estate  is  then  registered  in  the  name 
of  the  purchaser,  and  it  virtually  belongs  to  him,  the  pa- 
per he  has  received  being  equivalent  to  a  title-deed ;  but 
the  latter  is  drawn  up  at  Constantinople,  and  in  process  of 
time  is  handed  over  to  the  new  owner.  '\Yhen  buyer  and 
seller  are  agreed  as  to  terms,  half  an  hour  completes  the 
whole  transaction,  and  the  land  being  registered  makes 
the  whole  business  perfectly  simple  and  straightforward. 
Before  attending  at  the  konak,  the  purchaser  can  apply 
to  the  magistrate  of  the  district  where  the  land  is  situated, 
and  he  appoints  a  certain  day  for  the  attendance  on  the 
spot  of  all  neighboring  landowners ;  these,  accompanied 


398  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

Iby  the  magistrate,  the  purchaser,  and  the  seller,  go  round 
the  boundaries  and  compare  them  with  the  title-deeds,  so 
as  to  prevent  the  possibility  of  after-dispute.  This  trans- 
action is  registered  at  the  local  office,  and  affords  evi- 
dence in  favor  of  the  purchaser  against  any  neighbor  who 
might  afterward  disx)ute  the  boundary. 

Xotv^ithstanding  this,  the  wildest  statements  are  pro- 
mulgated regarding  property  in  Turkey,  which  would  lead 
to  the  sui)i)osition  that  there  was  no  such  thing  as  security 
for  a  landed  proj^rietor.  I  made  careful  inquiries  from 
the  highest  officials,  both  English  and  foreign,  who  had 
resided  many  years  in  the  country,  and  they  all  agreed 
that  no  single  instance  could  be  adduced  of  a  proprietor 
being  disturbed,  when  he  had  a  just  title  to  his  property. 

A  great  noise  is  sometimes  made  by  foreigners  in  Turkey 
against  the  bad  faith  of  the  Porte  in  this  respect,  and 
they  hold  theu'  own  cases  up  as  examples  ;  but  when  these 
cases  come  to  be  inquired  into,  it  is  found  that  the 
foreigner  is  the  delinquent,  who,  cunningly  taking  advan- 
tage of  some  loophole,  has  tried  to  cheat  either  the  Govern- 
ment or  some  one  else  out  of  his  property.  In  such  cases 
the  Turkish  law  is  strictly  just.  The  fact  is,  the  Turkish 
Government  is  a  peg  for  any  thwarted  adventurer  (and 
there  are  many)  to  hang  a  grievance  upon. 

In  Turkey,  if  a  man  be  careful  to  examine  the  title  of  his 
estate,  he  is  as  secure  and  as  free  in  his  property  as  in  any 
other  country.  But  if  he  be  careless,  and  purchases  the 
property  I  have  described  which  carries  Avith  it  the  rights 
of  mlra  and  other  complications,  he  must  naturally  expect 
to  meet  with  trouble  ;  and  the  same  penalty  would  follow 
in  England.  Formerly  it  was  not  possible  in  Turkey  to 
leave  landed  property  by  will,  but  when  a  man  died,  the 
estate  was,  by  law  divided  equally  among  his  children, 
and  each  child  received  a  separate  title-deed  to  his  share 
of  the  estate  ;  the  consequence  was  that  the  land  became 
broken  up  into  a  great  number  of  small  holdings  :  it  there- 
fore frequently  occurs  that,  on  buying  a  large  estate,  the 
purchaser  finds  that  he  has  over  a  hundred  title-deeds. 


FARMING.  399 

He  can,  however,  get  them  all  comprised  in  one  on  appli- 
cation to  the  Government. 

The  whole  expenses  connected  with  the  purchase  of 
mullc — landed  property — may  be  estimated  at  5  per  cent. 
on  the  purchase-money.  This  includes  the  Government 
tax  of  2i  per  cent. 

Landed  proprietors  in  Turkey  are,  almost  without 
exception,  non-resident,  and  their  estates  usually  comprise 
what  is  called  the  heylilc,  or  home  farm  ;  the  yeradjees,  or 
tenants  on  the  metayer  system,  which  is  prevalent  over 
nearly  the  whole  of  Southern  Europe  ;  and  the  grazlnr/s 
— that  is  to  say,  the  estate  contains  arable  land  and  natural 
pasture ;  the  tenants  are  permitted  to  graze  a  certain 
number  of  beasts  on  the  pasture-land,  which,  subject  to 
this  right,  is  let  to  flock-masters  for  grazing. 

AYe  will  su];)pose  that  a  proprietor  has  just  purchased 
an  estate,  or  cliijlllc,  as  it  is  called.  He  finds  upon  it  a 
dwelling-house  or  Iconak  (not  to  be  confused  "with  the 
Government  konak),  more  or  less  good,  surrounded  by 
houses  occupied  by  the  yeradjees,  or  metayer  tenants, 
and  houses  occupied  by  the  chifgees,  or  laborers,  who  work 
the  beylik,  or  home  farm. 

Each  yeradjee  has  his  straw-bam  and  a  stable,  and  there 
is  a  common  cattle-yard  for  all  the  tenants. 

The  beylik  has  its  own  straw-barn  and  cattle-stable.  In 
charge  of  the  estate  is  a  soubassi  or  native  bailiff — some- 
times a  Turk,  sometimes  a  Christian.  The  Turks  are  the 
most  trustworthy.  He  keeps  the  accounts,  and  acts  under 
instructions  from  the  proprietor.  His  wages  are  usually 
£35  a  year  and  house-room ;  he  keeps  himself.  What 
may  be  called  the  staff  of  the  estate,  who  are  paid  by  the 
proprietor,  are,  besides  the  soubassi,  the  semens  or 
gardes-cliampetre,  usually  two,  and  Albanians,  who  are 
armed  ;  they  get  from  £20  to  £23  per  annum,  keep  them- 
selves, and  find  their  own  horses,  or  £10  a  year  and  fines 
for  captured  cattle,  and  the  proprietor  finds  the  horses ; 
they  are  also  housed.  The  geladar,  or  estate  cow-herd : 
he  herds  all  the  cows,  calves,  horses,  etc. ,  of  both  j^erad- 


400  TURRET  IN  EUROPE. 

jees  and  proprietor;  Ms  wages  vary  slightly,  in  many 
cases  it  is— from  the  proprietor,  100  piastres— 17s,,  nearly 
— ^per  annum,  four  bushels  of  wheat,  two  bushels  of  bar- 
ley, two  bushels  of  rye,  and  one  and  a  half  skins  for  shoes  ; 
and  from  the  yeradjees,  11  piastres  per  head  for  non- work- 
ing cattle.  The  volovosJcos,  or  ox-herd  of  the  estate,  who 
looks  after  all  the  working  oxen  when  grazing,  and  is  paid 
500  piastres  per  annum,  and  the  same  allowance  of  grain 
as  the  geladar,  by  the  x)roprietor,  and  optional  small  pay- 
ments in  grain  by  the  yeradjees.  These  herds  are  usually 
gipsies,  and  are  housed  on  the  estate.  The  demirjee,  or 
blacksmith,  almost  always  a  gipsy,  who  is  housed  with 
his  family  on  the  estate :  his  wages  vary  ;  they  are  gener- 
ally 500  piastres  per  annum,  and  the  same  grain  allow- 
ances as  the  geladar  from  the  proprietor,  and  payment  for 
"work  done"  by  the  yeradjees.  He  shoes  the  cattle  and 
horses,  and  does  any  blacksmith's  work  which  may  Ibe 
required  of  him. 

This  completes  the  "staff"  of  the  estate.  It  is  culti- 
vated by — 

1.  Tlie  c7if/f/ees,  or  fann-laborers,  who  work  on  the  bey- 
lik,  or  home  farm,  for  the  proprietor,  under  the  soubassi, 
are  usually  paid  £10  per  annum  in  cash,  and  allowances 
of  grain  and  food,  the  average  annual  value  of  which  may 
be  set  down  at  £8,  so  that  the  total  cost  of  a  farm-laborer 
is  £18  per  annum  and  house-room. 

There  is  another  way  of  paying  these  farm-laborers, 
which  is  occasionally  adopted,  and  that  is  the  payment 
to  them  of  four  bushels  of  wheat,  two  bushels  of  barley, 
and  two  bushels  of  rye  per  annum,  and  in  place  of  a 
cash  payment  they  receive  15  per  cent,  of  the  crops  after 
tithe  and  seed  are  deducted.  This  is  a  co-operative  sys- 
tem, which  at  first  sight  would  appear  to  be  advisable ; 
but  it  is  not  to  the  advantage  of  the  proprietor,  as  the  men 
will  not  do  any  work  which  is  not  actually  connected  with 
the  cultivation  of  the  land  which  is  to  return  them  15  per 
cent,  of  its  produce. 

2.  The  yeradJeeSj  or  tenants  on  the  metayer  system. 


TEXA^^TS.  401 

These  men  form  what  is  nsnally  meant  by  the  term  rayah 
in  Tnrkey,  Their  Avealth  and  independence  much  depends 
upon  the  part  of  the  country  they  live  in,  and  the  wealth 
and  character  of  their  landlord.  As  Christians  they  are 
called  rayahs,  but  they  may  be  Turks,  Tartars,  or  any 
nationality ;  the  large  majority  are,  however,  Christians, 
and,  generally  speaking,  Bulgarians,  The  conditions  of 
their  tenancy  vary.  In  all  cases  the  landlord  provides 
them  \\'ith  a  house,  stable,  barn,  and  seed.  Occasionally 
they  pay  a  fixed  rent  of  about  two  bushels  of  wheat  to  the 
acre,  which  is  in  that  country  equivalent  on  an  average  to 
about  8s.  6d.  in  money-value ;  but  unless  they  are  well- 
to-do  people  (which  is  an  exception),  this  is  a  very  unsatis- 
factory arrangement  for  the  landlord,  because  in  bad  years 
they  cannot  pay,  and  in  good  years  he  obtains  only  his 
average  rent.  The  arrears  become  a  debt,  it  is  true,  but  it  is 
seldom  possible  to  realize  it.  The  yeradjees  as  a  rule  are 
farmers  of  only  one  plow  each,  worked  by  a  pair  of  oxen, 
with  a  third  beast  to  shift.  They  are  also  the  owners,  on 
an  average,  of  two  or  three  cows  and  their  calves,  and  two 
or  three  horses — in  all,  about  ten  animals  each. 

"WTien  working  on  the  metayer  system,  which  is  almost 
general,  the  landlord  provides  the  seed,  the  yeradjee  cul- 
tivates the  land,  and  after  tithe  and  seed  for  the  following 
year  are  deducted,  he  divides  the  crop  equally  with  the 
landlord.  By  this  system  the  landlord  in  a  bad  year  is  a 
loser,  but  in  a  good  year  he  receives  a  high  rent.  The 
yeradjee  is  also  given  gratis  a  small  amount  of  ground  for 
growing  melons,  and  also  sufficient  land  to  sow  grain-crops 
for  the  winter  feed  of  his  stock,  and  this  he  does  not  share 
with  the  landlord. 

The  wives  of  the  tenants  rear  and  sell  poultry. 

K  the  yeradjee  has  a  bad  year,  or  loses  his  cattle,  he  has 
to  borrow  money,  for  in  ninety-nine  cases  out  of  a  hundred 
he  has  not  a  farthing  of  capital.  If  he  goes  to  the  money- 
lenders, he  will  probably  have  to  pay  40  per  cent,  for  the 
loan.  He  therefore  applies  to  his  landlord,  who  advances 
it  to  him  at  12  per  cent.  It  thus  happens  that  each  tenant 
26 


402  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

has  a  debt  to  his  landlord,  and  it  is  usual  for  the  purchaser 
of  an  estate  to  take  over  with  it  the  debts  of  the  tenants, 
so  that  they  are  transferred  mth  the  property,  but  not 
necessarily  so.  However  if  the  new  owner  does  not  take 
them,  the  last  proprietor  waits  until  the  midst  of  the 
plowing-season,  and  then  summons  the  tenants  for  their 
debts,  which  of  course  they  cannot  pay,  and  are  therefore 
put  in  prison ;  so  that  the  new  owner  must  either  take 
over  the  debts,  or  lose  the  cultivation  of  his  estate  for  that 
year  for  want  of  men  to  plow  it. 

It  consequently  happens  that  the  proprietor  finds  him- 
self in  the  position  of  holding  tenants  whom  he  must  keep, 
however  badly  they  may  farm  his  land,  or  he  must  sacri- 
fice a  certain  amount  of  capital  if  he  dismisses  them. 

The  rayahs,  or  yeradjees,  on  their  side,  know  that  what- 
ever happens,  the  proprietor  must  support  them,  or  lose 
his  money,  and  they,  therefore,  become  lazy  and  careless. 
So  that  it  comes  to  this,  that  the  proprietor  is  responsible 
for  the  support  of  his  tenants,  but  has  no  control  over  the 
manner  in  which  they  cultivate  his  land.  Moreover,  for 
each  tenant  he  has  to  supply  grazing  for  ten  animals — • 
although  the  tenant  only  cultivates,  say,  forty  acres  of 
land — besides  supporting  a  host  of  poultry,  geese,  etc. 

It  would  seem  that  under  such  a  system  the  rayahs 
ought  to  prosper,  for  it  is  almost  a  case  of  "  heads  I  win, 
tails  you  lose,"  between  him  and  his  landlord.  Why, 
then,  does  it  happen  that  the  rayahs  are  poor,  and  living 
from  hand  to  mouth?  The  reason  is  not  far  to  seek. 
Their  religion  enjoins  180  out  of  the  365  days  of  the  year 
as  either  fasts  or  feasts,  and  for  abstention  from  work. 
Any  farmer  knows  the  importance,  in  farming,  of  doing 
the  right  thing  at  the  right  moment,  and  perhaps  one  or 
many  of  these  holidays  come  just  at  the  time  when  hard 
work  is  of  the  utmost  importance  ;  and  on  a  fine  day  in 
the  autumn,  when  wheat  ought  to  be  sowing,  a  number  of 
idle  fellows  may  be  seen  sitting  about  doing  nothing  but 
watch  their  cattle  "eating  their  heads  off,"  as  it  is  vul- 
garly called  ;  and  the  reason  given  is  that  it  is  a  "fast" 


RAYAHS.  403 

day,  and  tlie  priest  has  forbidden  work.  But  this  is  not 
all ;  when  the  work  is  done,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  culti- 
vation is  of  such  a  miserable  description,  that  the  wonder 
is  that  the  land  produces  anything  at  all.  The  whole  sys- 
tem is  bad,  from  beginning  to  end — bad  for  the  landlord 
and  bad  for  the  tenant — and  until  some  reform  can  be 
made  in  this  quarter,  there  is  no  hope  of  prosperity  for 
the  peasant-classes  in  Turkey.  But  be  it  observed  that 
the  fault  lies  here  not  with  the  Turks,  but  with  the  Chris- 
tians. If  the  Porte  were  to  attempt  to  dictate  as  to  the 
number  of  working  days  for  the  Christians,  what  an  out- 
cry about  persecution  we  should  have  flying  about  Eu- 
rope !  It  is,  however,  some  satisfaction  to  find  that  this 
absurd  excess  of  fasts  and  feasts  is  gi-adually  being  re- 
duced. 

Hired  laborers  will  now  work  every  day,  excepting  on 
the  few  most  important  holy  days.  The  rayahs  suffer  in 
many  instances  from  the  non-residence  of  their  landlords. 
The  soubassi  (generally  a  Christian)  grinds  them  down  to 
the  uttermost  farthing,  and  is  not  particular  about  justice, 
and,  by  way  of  being  consistent,  he  also  robs  the  land- 
lord. 

The  grazing  or  pasturage  of  a  chiflik  is  usually  let  to 
:^A  flock-masters,  and  consists  (in  the  plains)  of  two  lettings, 
the  summer  and  the  winter ;  the  latter  being  by  far  the 
more  valuable,  because  at  that  season  the  flocks  which 
during  the  summer  have  been  grazing  on  the  high 
mountains,  are  driven  down  to  the  plains  to  winter.  The 
summer  letting  takes  place  in  May,  and  the  winter  letting 
in  October.  It  is  the  custom  to  pay  cash  for  the  rent  of 
grazings — usually  half  in  advance,  and  the  second  moiety 
a  considerable  time  before  the  termination  of  the  letting. 

The  competition  for  the  winter  grazings  is  sometimes 
keen,  and  the  rents  are  high  for  that  country,  varying 
from  five  to  eight  piastres  per  head  for  sheep,  and  four- 
teen to  twenty-five  piastres  for  cattle,  for  the  season.  The 
proprietor  has  the  best  possible  security  for  his  rent,  as  he 
can  seize  the  sheep  or  cattle  upon  his  estate  if  it  be  not 


404  TUREET  IN  EUROPE. 

paid,  and  the  custom  of  payment  in  advance  always  en- 
ables him  to  secure  his  rent.  The  necessity  for  such  strong 
measures  is,  however,  quite  exceptional,  as  the  rents  are 
paid  with  great  regularity. 

We  have  hitherto  been  considering  the  occupation  of 
land  as  chifliks  or  large  landed  estates,  but  there  is  a  very 
large  portion  of  the  country  held  by  villagers  on  the 
terms  of  tenure  I  have  described  in  page  396.  These  men 
are  more  prosperous,  because  they  are  more  self-depend- 
ent, but  in  the  case  of  the  Christians  the  numerous  holi- 
days and  wretched  system  of  cultivation  naturally  act  as 
a  great  di^ag  to  advancement,  yet  in  spite  of  this  the  land 
is  so  wonderfully  rich,  especially  in  Macedonia,  that  in 
many  cases  comparatively  wealthy  villagers  are  to  be 
found.  This  is  not  so  general  among  the  Turkish  popu- 
lation, who  are  poorer  but  uncomplaining.  The  drain 
upon  them  for  military  service  is  one  of  the  chief  causes 
of  their  want  of  success,  but  they  are  industrious,  and 
apparently  contented. 

One  of  the  grievances  of  all  classes  of  peasants,  and  a 
very  just  one,  is  what  is  called  "corvee,"  or  forced  labor. 
In  time  of  war,  or  on  any  emergency,  the  Government 
seize  the  men  and  horses  belonging  to  the  villagers  for 
any  State  work  which  may  be  necessary.  The  men  are 
paid,  it  is  true,  but  the  loss  to  the  farms  at  some  seasons 
of  the  year  is  far  more  than  the  payment  covers.  Re- 
bellion is  so  often  fomented  in  some  part  or  other  of  the 
empire  that  these  emergencies  arise  frequently,  and  the 
hardship  is  great. 

The  system  of  cultivation  in  Turkey  varies  with  locality 
and  soil.  In  some  places  it  is  customary  to  sow  land  one 
year  and  leave  it  fallow  the  next ;  in  others  the  same  land 
is  sown  every  year,  and  in  neither  case  is  manure  applied. 
This,  of  course  must  exhaust  the  soil,  but  it  is  wonderful 
how  well  some  of  the  rich  alluvial  plains  seem  to  bear  it ; 
and  I  have  seen  lands  giving  very  fine  crops  which  have 
been  sown  yearly,  without  manure,  as  far  back  as  the 
natives  can  remember.    They  certainly  get  a  slight  ma- 


PLOWS.  405 

nuring  from  tlie  custom  of  turning  slieep  on  tlie  land  im- 
mediately after  harvest,  and  also,  in  the  early  spring,  to 
graze  down  the  grain  crops,  which  at  that  season  are  wont 
to  get  "proud,"  as  the  English  farmer  terms  it ;  but  this 
is  but  slight  compensation  for  all  the  chemical  matter 
which  must  be  abstracted  from  the  soil  by  the  successive 
crops  and  removal  of  the  straw,  I  find  that  in  Macedonia 
there  is  generally  a  four-course  system  of  wheat,  barley, 
rye,  and  a  summer  crop.  Wheat,  barley,  rye,  and  oats 
are  sown  in  the  autumn  and  reaped  in  June,  and  the  ear- 
lier they  are  in  the  ground  the  better  for  the  crop  ;  but 
sowing  goes  on  until  the  middle  of  January.  Spring 
grain  crops  are  always  a  failure  in  Turkey.  The  summer 
crops  consist  of  maize,  kikree,  sesame,  rovi  (a  sort  of 
small  pea),  revethi  (the  Indian  gram),  cotton,  tobacco,  etc. 
They  are  sown  during  April  and  May,  and  reaped  in 
August  and  September,  Hay  is  confined  to  the  natural 
grasses,  w^hich  are  rich  and  abundant,  A  portion  of  the 
grazing  is  reserved  for  hay  in  AjDril,  and  the  grass  springs 
up  nearly  three  feet  high,  and  is  cropped  in  June,  It  is 
not  stacked,  as  in  England,  but  is  made  up  into  bundles 
and  housed  in  barns.  When  properly  cultivated,  every- 
thing grows  in  the  greatest  luxuriance  ;  and  even  vdth  the 
wretched  system  adopted,  the  land  produces  in  good  sea- 
sons crops  equal  to  those  in  England. 

If  Noah  had  a  plow,  I  expect  it  was  very  similar  to  the 
primitive  implement  which  is  now  used  in  Turkey.  A 
long  crooked  piece  of  wood,  with  a  yoke  of  oxen  at  one 
end  of  it,  and  a  single  handle,  held  by  a  careless  earth- 
scratcher  at  the  other,  performs  the  scratching  operation 
at  a  quick  w^alk.  It  cannot  be  called  plowing.  If  a  bram- 
ble be  met,  the  plowman  works  round  it  delicately — he 
never  thinks  of  grubbing  it  up — if  a  tall  thistle,  with  a 
tough  root,  he  pays  it  similar  respect,  and  hops  the  plow 
over  it  with  a  clever  jerk.  Brambles  and  thistles  are 
rather  numerous,  so  that  the  appearance  of  a  plowed  field 
in  Turkey  is  not  exactly  what  it  is  in  England  !  Barley, 
rye,  and  oats  are  sown  broadcast  on  the  old  stubble  and 


406  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

scratched  in  with  the  plow.  Wheat  land  receives  two 
plowings.  Harvesters  go  about  in  gangs,  and  are  engaged 
in  April  for  the  June  harvest.  In  Macedonia  the  harvest- 
ing expenses,  exclusive  of  carrying,  come  to  from  £7  10s. 
to  £9  per  plow. 

I  have  already  explained  the  mode  of  taking  the  tithe. 
The  sheaves  are  carried  in  bullock-wagons  to  the  thresh- 
ing-floors, which  consist  of  a  level  part  of  the  land,  well 
cleared  and  trodden,  and  in  a  position  likely  to  catch  the 
wind  from  every  quarter. 

The  grain  in  the  ear  is  strewn  about  the  threshing-floor, 
and  in  many  places  horses  are  merely  galloped  over  it  to 
break  out  the  grain  ;  but  the  more  improved  method  is  to 
harness  them  into  a  sort  of  wooden  sleigh,  studded  with 
flints  at  the  bottom.  On  this  one  of  the  giiis  of  the  village 
(or  farm)  stands,  and  as  she  supports  herself  with  a  long 
wand,  the  horses  are  lashed  into  a  gallop  round  and  round 
the  threshing-floor.  It  is  a  very  busy  and  picturesque 
sight,  as  these  young  ladies  go  careering  round  and  round 
amid  the  golden  corn,  under  the  admiring  gaze  of  their 
swains. 

The  straw  is  cut  up  into  small  lengths  of  about  two 
inches  by  this  process,  and  the  grain  is  then  winnowed  by 
tossing  it  up  cleverly  with  wooden-pronged  forks  and 
shovels,  so  that  the  breeze  may  blow  away  the  chaff,  which 
falls  like  showers  of  gold-leaf  in  every  direction. 

Both  men  and  women  work  hard  at  the  threshing,  begin- 
ning at  2  A.M.  and  working,  off  and  on,  until  after  9  p.m. 
As  may  easily  be  imagined,  this  system  of  threshing  is 
wasteful  in  the  extreme.  Moreover,  if  rain  comes  on, 
large  quantities  of  grain  are  destroyed.  Another  serious 
evil  of  this  system  is  that  the  farm  men  are  occupied  with 
threshing  at  the  very  time  they  ought  to  be  plo\ving  the 
land  for  the  next  year's  crop ;  so  that  a  heavy  harvest 
entails  a  short  crop  the  following  year,  because  it  has  taken 
so  long  to  thresh  that  the  time  for  sowing  is  limited. 

In  Turkey  the  yield  of  a  crop  is  not  estimated,  as  in 
England,  at  so  many  bushels  to  the  acre,  but  at  so  many 


OBJECTIONS  TO  MACniNERT.  407 

times  tlie  seed  sown.  Eiglit  times  is  considered  an  aver- 
age crop,  ten  times  good,  and  twelve  times  very  good, 
but  I  have  had  fourteen  times  the  seed  from  rye.  About 
three  bushels  of  wheat  are  sown  to  the  acre,  two  and  a 
half  bushels  of  rye,  four  bushels  of  barley,  and  four 
bushels  of  oats.  Indian-corn  yields  two,  three,  and  some- 
times four  hundred-fold.  Land  receives  two  plomngs 
for  the  summer  crops.  The  Indian-corn  is  dibbled  in  rows 
and  hoed  twice.  The  labor  is,  therefore,  expensive,  but 
it  is  a  paying  crop  on  suitable  land.  Laborers  can  be 
engaged  by  the  month,  week,  or  day,  and  are  called  respect- 
ively Ailekgee,  Hef tagee,  and  Guiundelikgee,  ai  signifying 
in  Turkish  a  month,  hefta  a  week,  and  guiun  a  day.  The 
termination  lik  signifies  belonging  to,  and  gee  is  attribu- 
tive :  hence,  chift  =  a  pair,  chiftgee  the  worker  of  a  pair 
(of  oxen) ;  bey-lik  belonging  to  the  bey  ;  Yarim  =  half, 
yarimgee,  or  yeradjee,  one  who  works  for  half.  It  is  not 
easy  to  find  labor  at  a  moment's  notice,  and  care  is  re- 
quired to  provide  beforehand  for  future  wants. 

The  drawback  to  labor  in  Turkey  is  the  difficulty  of 
getting  a  man  to  do  any  work  but  that  which  he  consid- 
ers his  particular  line  ;  so  that  a  plo^vman  will  not  make 
a  ditch,  and  a  ditcher  will  not  make  a  fence.  A  little  tact 
and  management  are  required  to  overcome  these  prejudices. 

Like  the  peasantry  of  every  country  the  Bulgarians  are 
very  prejudiced,  and  object  to  any  innovation.  To  every 
improvement  that  is  suggested  the  answer  is,  "  It  may  do 
in  your  country,  but  it  won't  do  here;"  but  by  perse- 
verance this  obstinacy  can  be  overcome.  Like  our  own 
English  farm-laborers  in  former  days,  they  have  the 
greatest  objection  to  what  they  call  the  "machina,"  or 
machinery,  but  although  they  never  attempt  to  destroy  it, 
they  are  delighted  to  see  the  work  go  wrong.  This,  again, 
merely  requires  patience  and  perseverance  to  overcome  it. 
I  took  out  an  English  single  and  a  double-furrow  plow, 
by  Messrs.  Ransomes,  Sims  &  Head.  At  first  the  na- 
tives said  they  were  no  use,  and  it  would  be  quite  impos- 
sible to  work  them  ;  but  through  the  perseverance  of  my 


408  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

agent,  Mr.  W.  C.  Eobertson,  they  are  now  doing  excellent 
work,  and  a  native  with  the  single  plow  can  turn  up  one 
and  one-eighth  English  acres  a  day,  seven  inches  deep,  in 
a  rich  sandy  loam,  which  would  be  considered  good  even 
for  an  Englishman.  The  fact  is,  the  Bulgarian  works 
about  nine  hours  on  a  winter's  day,  while  the  Englishman 
only  works  six.  The  villagers  are  now  beginning  to  ask 
for  English  plows ;  so  they  are  evidently  amenable  to 
reason.  The  difference  in  the  croiDS  from  the  land  which 
has  been  cultivated  with  our  home  plows  is  very  re- 
markable, and  I  hope  before  long  to  see  all  the  neigh- 
boring villagers  cultivating  their  land  on  the  English 
system. 

The  cattle  in  Turkey  are  small,  but  well  shaped,  and 
nearly  all  the  same  color,  namely,  a  light  yellowish  gray, 
with  brown  points.  The  cows  give  very  little  milk,  but 
what  is  given  is  almost  as  rich  as  cream.  The  calves  are 
usually  allowed  to  have  it  all.  I  have  tried  a  cross  with 
a  thoroughbred  ISTorth  Devon  bull,  and  expect  great  re- 
sults, as  the  climate  is  admirably  suited  for  cattle  rearing. 
Buffaloes  are  much  used  for  draught  work  and  plowing, 
and  very  useful  animals  they  are,  although  slow  in  their 
paces." 

In  Macedonia  a  pair  of  working  oxen  costs  from  £12  to 
£18,  a  pair  of  buffaloes  from  £20  to  £22,  pack-horses  from 
£5  to  £8,  riding-horses  (small),  from  £10  to  £30.  All  the 
horses  are  very  small,  but  ^Avj  and  hardy  animals. 

Sheep-farming  pays  well  in  Turkey  if  properly  man- 
aged. The  sheep  are  not  well  bred,  and  more  resemble 
the  common  Irish  than  any  other  I  know ;  there  is  a  large 
field  for  improving  the  breed,  and  the  experiment  would 
pay  well.  The  flockmasters  rent  summer  grazing  on  the 
great  mountains,  and  winter  grazing  on  the  plains,  and 
they  will  sometimes  drive  their  flocks  as  far  as  200  miles 
from  one  ground  to  the  other.  I  met  a  flockmaster  on  the 
plains  of  Troy  in  the  winter  whom  I  had  seen  during  the 
summer  with  the  same  flocks  on  the  Balkan  mountains. 
He  told  me  that  it  answered  very  weU.  to  drive  them  so 


SHEEP  FARMING.  409 

far,  because  they  paid  nothing  for  grazing  daring  the 
journey. 

The  slieep  clip  on  an  average  about  2|lbs.  of  coarse, 
kempy  wool,  whicli  finds  a  ready  sale  at  from  Gd.  to  8d. 
per  lb.  ;  but  in  the  district  of  Adrianojile  the  wool  is  of  a 
finer  quality,  and  from  one  to  two  million  pounds  of  it 
are  exported  annually  to  France.  The  ewes  are  milked 
after  July,  when  the  lambs  are  weaned,  and  the  milk  is 
made  into  butter  and  cheese,  which  always  finds  a  ready 
sale,  even  on  the  mountain-top,  where  merchants  go  to 
purchase  it.  It  is  calculated  that  1,000  ewes  will  produce 
cheese  and  butter  to  the  value  of  £150  in  the  season. 

Sheep  are  taxed  after  they  become  shearlings.  In  Mace- 
donia the  tax  is  4|  piasters  per  head  per  annum.  Young 
shepherds  are  paid  £12  a  year,  including  food ;  good  shep- 
herds £25.  The  rent  for  grazing  may  be  set  down  at  from 
ten  to  fourteen  piasters  a  head,  including  winter  and  sum- 
mer. The  sheep  get  nothing  to  eat  but  what  they  can  pick 
up,  excexDtiug  in  very  stormy  weather  in  the  winter,  when 
they  are  given  a  little  barley,  the  cost  of  which  for  the 
season  may  be  set  down  at  about  four  piasters  per  head. 
In  Macedonia  a  lamb  when  weaned  "svill  sell  for  from 
thirty-five  to  sixty  i)iasters,  according  to  size.  The  shep- 
herds never  leave  their  flocks  day  or  night,  and  are  very 
careful  of  them  ;  but  the  art  of  breeding  is  not  understood, 
and  the  sheep  run  down  to  skeletons  in  a  bad  winter,  and 
fatten  again  in  the  summer. 

Cotton  is  extensively  cultivated  in  Macedonia  and  iq 
many  other  parts  of  Turkey,  as  the  soil  m  some  parts  and 
the  climate  is  well  suited  for  it.  The  seed  of  the  annual 
cotton  plant  is  sown  in  May,  and  the  crop  is  gathered  in 
the  end  of  September. 

Tobacco  grows  in  great  perfection  in  many  parts  of  Tur- 
key, especially  in  the  district  between  Cavalla  and  Lagos, 
on  the  ^gean  Sea,  where  lies  the  quarter  called  Jened- 
sche,  which  gives  its  name  to  some  of  the  finest  tobacco 
in  the  world.  The  high  price  which  this  tobacco  realizes 
makes  its  cultivation  In  that  quarter  very  profitable,  and 


410  TURRET  IN  EUROPE. 

it  is  all  in  the  hands  of  natives  of  the  country.  Near  Ca- 
vaUa  I  saw  a  smaU  valley  broken  up  into  little  farms  of 
not  more  than  four  or  five  acres,  each  of  which  boasted  of 
a  small  house,  and  was  well  fenced.  Tobacco  only  was 
cultivated,  and  the  flourishing  condition  of  the  little  farms 
evidenced  the  profitable  nature  of  the  crop. 

In  other  parts  of  the  country,  where  the  nature  of  the 
soU  is  not  so  peculiarly  suited  to  the  plant  as  at  Cavalla 
and  Jenedsche,  the  cultivation  of  tobacco  is  less  profitable 
than  that  of  grain  crops. 

Vineyards  in  Turkey  are  very  extensive,  and  the  climate 
is  admirably  suited  to  the  growth  of  the  vine.  The  vol- 
canic nature  of  the  soil  in  many  parts  of  the  country  is 
also  favorable  to  the  cultivation  of  that  plant.  There  are 
many  kinds  of  grapes,  both  of  the  black  and  white  varie- 
ties, and  most  of  them  are  good,  but  the  wines  are  as  yet 
but  indifferent,  from  the  careless  manner  in  which  they  are 
made. 

All  the  wine  made  in  the  country  is  generally  consumed 
in  the  year  of  its  manufacture,  so  that  much  "  bouquet " 
cannot  be  expected. 

The  vines  are  planted  about  fifty  inches  apart,  and  are 
well  dug  and  trenched  twice  a  year.  They  do  not  bear 
grapes  before  the  fiith,  and  the  crop  goes  on  increasing 
until  the  tenth  year,  when  it  produces  on  an  average  about 
6,500  lbs.  of  grapes  to  the  acre,  which  sell  atone  halfpenny 
per  lb.,  wholesale. 

They  are  pruned  to  about  three  feet  in  height,  and  are 
not  "  sticked."  To  lay  down  a  vineyard  costs  by  the  end 
of  the  fifth  year,  including  the  price  of  the  land,  about 
£30  per  acre. 

Olives  and  lemons  grow  to  great  perfection  in  the 
islands,  and  at  Volo  in  Thessaly,  and  in  Epirus,  but  in 
other  parts  of  Turkey  in  Europe  the  winters  are  too  se- 
vere for  those  fruits. 

The  olive  oil  of  Volo  is  celebrated,  and  is  exported  in 
large  quantities. 

Snk  cultivation  is  decreasing  in  Turkey,  and  although 


SILK.  411 

manufactories  for  the  raw  material  are  found  at  Salonica, 


Philippopolis,  Adrianople,  and  otlier  parts  of  tlie  country, 
it  is  generally  reported  that  they  are  unprofitable.  The 
great  fluctuations  in  the  price  of  cocoons  is  assigned  as 
the  cause  of  the  decrease  in  the  cultivation  of  the  silk- 
worm. The  year  1876  was  an  instance  of  this  rai)id  fluctu- 
ation. The  price  of  cocoons  had  sunk  to  a  very  Ioav  level, 
when  in  the  course  of  two  months  it  more  than  doubled 
itself,  and  I  believe  a  merchant  in  Salonica  cleared 
£12,000  by  the  sudden  rise  in  this  one  article. 

The  mulberry-tree  is  of  the  white  variety,  and  is  pol- 
larded, the  shoots  being  cut  doAvn  every  year.  The  fruit 
of  those  trees  which  are  allowed  to  grow  is  white,  of  a 
sickly  flavor,  and  without  much  juice.  On  many  farms 
there  are  a  number  of  these  trees,  and  men  come  round  in 
the  spring  and  bargain  with  the  proprietor  either  to  let 
the  trees  at  so  much  each,  or  to  provide  house-room  for 
the  man  who  brings  the  seed,  cultivates  the  cocoons,  and 
shares  half  the  profits  "vvith  the  proprietor.  A  mulberry- 
tree  will  let  for  the  season  at  from  fifteen  to  twenty-five 
piasters. 

Turkey  carpets  may  reasonably  be  expected  to  claim  a 
place  in  the  products  of  that  country  ;  but  those  sold  in 
England  do  not  come  from  Turkey  in  Europe,  but  from 
Smyrna. 

Large  quantities  of  carpets  are  made  in  various  parts  of 
Roumelia,  each  place  having  its  distinctive  pattern  and 
texture  ;  but  they  are  not  exported  in  any  quantity,  and 
a.re  chiefly  used  in  the  country.  They  are  of  an  inferior 
kind  to  those  exported  from  Smyrna  ;  but  are  very  pretty, 
and  the  colors  and  patterns  are  well  harmonized.  In  visit- 
ing one  of  the  mosques,  at  Salonica,  which  was  originally 
an  old  heathen  temple  before  the  Christian  era,  I  was  much 
struck  with  the  resemblance  of  some  of  the  beautiful  mo- 
saics, still  in  excellent  order,  to  the  patterns  and  colors  on 
the  Turkish  carpets,  and  it  is  possible  that  old  mosaics  form 
the  originals  of  the  carpet-patterns  we  so  much  admire. 

The  general  products  of  Turkey  might  easily  be  raised 


412  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

to  five  times  their  present  amount  by  some  energy  and 
honesty  on  the  part  of  the  Government ;  but  it  must  in 
any  case  be  a  comparatively  slow  process,  as  the  habits 
and  prejudices  of  a  people  cannot  be  changed  in  a  day. 
The  rich  mines  of  the  country  cannot  many  of  them  be 
called  virgin,  since  there  are  historical  records  that  in 
ancient  times  they  were  worked  to  a  considerable  extent, 
and  judging  by  the  estimation  in  which  some  of  the 
Thracian  princes  were  held  for  their  wealth  in  gold  and 
silver  mines,  they  must  in  those  days  have  been  very 
remunerative  :  but  there  is  no  doubt  that  in  the  present 
day  almost  inexhaustible  wealth  is  lying  buried  in  the 
mines  of  Turkey  in  Europe  and  Asia  Minor.  Many  of 
these  mines  have  been  assayed,  and  applications  made  to 
the  Porte  for  concessions  to  work  them.  The  Porte  has 
been  so  beset  in  this  way  with  adventurers,  and  so  often 
deceived,  that  it  hesitates  to  grant  a  concession.  On  the 
other  hand,  so  much  backshish  would  have  been  necessary 
under  Sultan  Abdul  A*iz  to  obtain  a  concession,  that  no 
respectable  company  would  undertake  it. 

The  natural  advantages  of  Turkey  suggest  a  good  field 
for  emigration,  and  as  I  have  had  some  experience  of  the 
country  in  that  way,  I  wUl  offer  my  reader  the  benefit 
of  it. 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 

TUEKEY  AS  A  FIELD   FOR  EMIGEATIOK. 

Laws  wliicli  Eegulate  Farming — Causes  of  Success  in  Emigration — Causes  of 
Failure  in  Turkey — Sheep  Farming — Capital  Eequired  for  Starting  a 
Farm — Sport — Value  of  Land — Wages — Caution  necessary  in  Choosing  a 
Farm. 

rpHEEE  are  certain  causes,  whicli  may  almost  be  called 
-*-  laws,  that  contribute  to  success  in  farming,  and  when 
they  are  found  combined  in  any  country  the  emigrant  may 
feel  that,  if  success  does  not  follow,  it  will  be  his  own 
fault. 

These  elements  for  success  may  be  comprised  under  the 
following  heads : — 

Rich  and  cheap  land. 

A  favorable  climate. 

Cheap  and  abundant  labor. 

Good  available  markets. 

Fair  taxation. 

Security  for  life  and  property. 

It  is  not  probable  that  all  these  can  be  found  to  perfec- 
tion in  any  country,  but  the  emigrant  should  seek  the 
land  that  has  the  nearest  approach  to  them.  Turkey  in 
Europe  certainly  stands  high  in  the  market  in  this  respect, 
but  it  is  not  a  country  to  which  I  should  ever  advise  a 
laboring  man  to  emigrate,  for  the  reason  that  he  would 
feel  so  "abroad"  among  the  natives,  and  so  ignorant  of 
their  language.  There  are  only  two  classes  of  men  who 
should  ever  emigrate,  namely,  those  who  have  capital  and 
brains,  or  those  who  have  the  strength  and  will  to  make 
their  way  by  the  "  sweat  of  the  brow." 

413 


41 4  TURRET  m  EUROPE. 

The  greater  number  of  successful  emigi'ants  to  our  colo- 
nies and  America  have  made  their  fortunes  by  purchasing 
at  an  exceedingly  cheap  rate  land  which  has  afterward 
risen  to  great  value.  They  have,  in  fact,  been  pioneers 
of  civilization,  and  have  reaped  the  benefits  of  railways 
and  telegraphs,  which  have  brought  the  land  of  their 
adoption  into  easy  communication  with,  and  consequent- 
ly nearer  to  the  civilized  world.  In  passing  through  Italy, 
along  the  plains  of  Foggia,  I  was  much  struck  by  the 
resemblance  of  the  country  to  the  plains  of  Mace- 
donia. I  made  inquiries  as  to  the  value  of  land,  and  to 
my  astonishment  heard  that  it  was  as  much  as  £25  an 
acre,  but  I  was  told  that,  not  many  years  ago,  before  the 
railway  pushed  into  the  country,  any  quantity  of  it  might 
be  bought  at  £4  an  acre.  I  believe  that  the  same  law  will 
apply  to  Turkey,  and  that  in  a  few  years,  when  railways 
have  made  their  way,  as  they  are  doing,  and  will  continue 
to  do,  the  land  will  rise  in  value  as  much  as  it  has  done  in 
Italy.  No  man  should  emigrate  to  Turkey  unless  he  has 
capital,  and  even  then  he  should  not  spend  a  farthing  of 
that  capital  until  he  has  lived  a  year  in  the  country  and 
learnt  to  know  something  of  its  ways.  Macedonia  is  in- 
comparably the  best  field  in  Turkey  for  an  emigrant  capi- 
talist. He  will  there  find  land  as  rich  -as  any  in  the  world, 
and  exceedingly  cheap,  a  climate  admirably  suited  for  the 
growth  of  almost  all  cereals,  as  well  as  many  root-crops, 
and  for  the  rearing  of  animals,  especially  sheep. 

He  will  find  labor  very  cheap,  but  not  abundant.  If  he 
be  careful  in  the  selection  of  his  estate,  he  will  find  good 
and  available  markets.  Taxation  is  heavy,  but  not  op- 
pressive. Life  and  property  are  secure  in  time  of  peace, 
and  as  secure  as  can  be  expected  during  war.  But  let  me 
warn  him  that  several  Englishmen  have  tried  farming  in 
Turkey,  and  with  two  exceptions  they  have  failed.  I 
have  been  to  much  pains  to  discover  the  cause  of  this,  as 
in  Turkey  aU  the  laws  necessary  for  success  certainly  seem 
to  combine.  An  emigrant  who  purchases  an  estate  such 
as  I  have  described  in  the  preceding  chapter,  has  to  choose 


AMATEUR  FARMERS.  415 

between  two  courses — either  to  accept  the  prevailing  sys- 
tem, or  to  make  a  change  and  introduce  high  farming. 

If  he  does  the  former,  he  \vill  certainly  not  make  money, 
and  if  he  attempts  the  latter  without  due  caution,  he  will 
certainly  lose  it.  It  is  this  latter  course,  and  in  many 
cases  the  want  of  sufficient  capital,  which  have  been,  I  am 
inclined  to  think,  the  cause  of  most  cases  of  failure  in 
farming  land  in  Turkey. 

The  faulty  system  which  is  now  practised  demands  a 
change,  but  the  introduction  of  high  cultivation  and  ma- 
chinery must  be  adopted  by  slow  degrees.  Many  ama- 
teur farmers  do  not  realize  the  amount  of  capital  necessary 
for  starting  and  maintaining  a  farm,  and  spend  nearly  all 
their  ready  money  in  buying  an  estate  five  times  larger 
than  they  can  cultivate  ;  and,  of  course,  find  that  they  do 
not  obtain  a  high  interest  on  their  outlay.  Others  com- 
mence by  investing  large  sums  in  agricultural  machinery, 
which  they  afterward  find  quite  unsuited  to  the  country. 
I  heard  of  one  instance  of  a  gentleman  who  had  an  estate 
on  the  sea-shore,  and  who  spent  £6,000  on  machinery^ 
with  the  view  of  cultivating  the  land  on  a  very  extensive 
scale,  but  did  not  take  into  calculation  the  weight  of  the 
engines,  etc.,  and  the  mechanical  arrangements  necessary 
for  landing  them.  The  consequence  was,  they  arrived 
at  the  beach  of  the  estate,  but  there  was  no  provision 
for  getting  them  on  shore  from  the  lighters,  and  in  the 
attempts  to  accomplish  the  task  they  sank  into  the  sand 
and  the  sea.  An  Englishman,  in  his  own  country,  will 
immediately  exclaim — with  fine  English  cart-horses  in  his 
mind — ""\Yhy  did  he  not  get  a  lot  of  horses  and  drag 
them  out  % "  But  that  was  exactly  what  he  did  try  ;  only 
the  horses  of  that  country  are  very  small,  and  not  used  to 
draught ;  and  consequently,  when  one  pulled  the  other 
stopped,  and  when  the  whip  was  applied  they  all  kicked, 
so  that  failed.  Bullocks  and  buffaloes  were  then  tried ; 
but  they  also  have  their  quirks  and  fancies,  and  being 
accustomed  to  work  only  in  single  pairs,  were  indig- 
nant at  this   gregarious  innovation,  not  knowing  what 


416  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

goading  and  torture  it  miglit  not  tend  to,  and  so  they  ran 
this  way  and  that  way,  and  sideways,  and  backways,  and 
did  everything  but  pull  all  together ;  and  I  believe  the 
engines  lie  in  the  sand  to  this  day  ! 

If  an  emigrant  understands  something  about  farming 
before  he  leaves  his  own  country,  and  then  resides  in 
Macedonia  for  a  year,  watching  meanwhile  the  seasons 
and  also  the  habits  of  the  people,  he  will  have  gained  suf- 
ficient experience  to  warrant  the  investment  of  half  of  his 
available  capital  in  the  purchase  of  an  estate  or  chiflik. 

He  should  allow  the  native  system  of  cultivation  to 
continue,  with  the  exception  of  purchasing  one  English 
plow  and  some  harrows. 

"When  he  has  taught  his  native  laborers  to  work  that 
one  plow  satisfactorily  he  should  buy  another,  and  so 
on,  until  he  has  ousted  all  native  tenants  and  implements 
from  his  estate,  and  has  it  under  the  English  system  of 
cultivation.  He  may  then  spend  some  of  his  still  re- 
maining capital  upon  machinery,  and  I  am  confident 
that  he  will  find  his  estate  a  very  profitable  undertaking, 
and  that  it  will  quintuple  in  value  in  the  course  of  twenty 
years. 

It  is  impossible  that  the  native  system  of  cultivation  can 
pay  a  proprietor,  for  it  is  wasteful  in  the  extreme,  and 
execrable  farming.  Means  of  communication  are  now  so 
improved  that  a  farmer  in  any  part  of  Europe  has  to  com- 
pete with  the  whole  world,  and  especially  with  America. 

Turkey  is  much  nearer  the  great  markets — France  and 
England-r-than  is  America  ;  also  her  soil  is  just  as  rich, 
her  climate  as  good,  and  her  labor  infinitely  cheaper. 
How  is  it,  then,  that  America  can  compete  successfully  in 
the  market  against  her?  The  answer  is  to  be  found  in 
the  utilization  of  labor  by  means  of  machinery  and  good 
farming.  Turkey  must  place  herself  side  by  side  with 
America  in  this  respect,  and  then  she  can  beat  her,  but  it 
cannot  be  done  with  a  jump. 

There  are  two  courses  open  to  a  gentleman-emigrant  to 
Macedonia — either  sheep-farming  or  the  cultivation  of  arat 


AMATEUR  FARMERS.  417 

blo  land.  I  should  recommend  tlie  former  ;  but  tliis  again 
may  be  divided  into  two  courses: — First,  the  emigrant 
might  buy  a  large  estate  on  the  plains,  let  it  all  run  to 
pasture,  buy  his  stock  of  shsip,  rent  summer  grazing  for 
most  of  them  on  the  neighb:  ing  mountains,  and  winter 
them  on  his  own  estate.  He  could  introduce  the  English 
breeds,  and  combine  cattle-rearing  \^dth  his  sheep-farming. 
It  would  not  be  necessary  to  grow  root-crops  for  the  win- 
tering, as  the  climate  is  so  mild  that  there  is  a  good  bite 
during  that  season,  and  hay  would  be  the  only  extra  food 
required. 

This  would  be  a  very  profitable  undertaking,  but  it 
would  necessitate  a  large  capital — say  £12,000. 

The  emigrant  would  have  a  large  estate,  with  the  pros- 
pective advantage  of  its  quintupling  itself  in  value,  and  in 
the  meantime  a  very  high  rate  of  interest  for  his  money. 

The  emigrant  with  only  half  that  capital  should  pursue 
a  different  course,  and  might  buy  a  small  estate  of  about 
500  acres  among  the  woods  at  the  foot  of  the  mountains  on 
the  great  Macedonian  plain.  Upon  this  he  should  build 
his  house,  and  make  his  home.  The  estate  would  cost  him 
about  £1,200,  and  his  house  and  buildings  £800  at  the 
outside,  leaving  him  £4,000  of  his  capital.  He  should  then 
begin  the  first  year  by  buying  200  ewes,  and  he  might  im- 
port three  or  four  English  rams  as  an  experiment.  The 
second  year  he  might  buy  500  more  ewes,  and  the  thu-d 
year  2,000  more,  by  which  time  he  should  still  have  £1,000 
of  his  capital  in  hand  for  a  rainy  day.  He  would  farm  by 
renting  both  his  summer  and  the  gi^eater  part  of  his  win- 
ter grazing,  which  he  would  find  near  his  own  estate.  The 
mountains  close  to  him  range  from  5,000  to  8,000  feet  high, 
and  he  could  rent  admirable  summer  grazing  within  eight- 
een miles  of  his  hoiise.  A  good  English  or  Scotch  shep- 
herd would  be  desirable.  His  flocks  would  come  down 
from  the  mountains  in  October,  and  return  to  them  in  the 
end  of  April,  and  the  emigrant  should  follow  his  flocks. 
He  would  find  a  rough  but  comfortable  house  for  a  sum- 
mer residence  in  one  of  the  villages,  perhaps  5,000  feet  up 
27 


418  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

the  mountains,  and  on  his  rented  grazing.  The  climate  of 
the  mountains  in  the  summer  is  simply  exquisite,  and  the 
"beauty  of  the  country  rivals  the  climate. 

The  plains  in  the  winter  are  healthy  in  the  extreme,  and 
if  the  emigrant  is  a  sportsman,  he  would  get  the  finest 
woodcock -shooting  in  the  world,  besides  a  few  jDheasants, 
plenty  of  hares,  and  gray  partridges,  innumerable  snij^e, 
wild  ducks,  wild  geese,  large  and  small  bustards,  etc.,  etc. 
On  the  mountains  (and  in  the  woods  on  tlie  j)lains  in  the 
winter)  there  are  plenty  of  red-deer,  roe-deer,  and  wild 
pigs,  and — what  he  could  well  dispense  with — wolves  and 
foxes.  But  if  he  is  going  to  sheep-farm  he  must  make 
sport  a  secondary  and  not  a  primary  consideration. 

The  cost  of  living  would  be  very  trifling,  as  all  the  nec- 
essaries of  life  are  very  cheap,  and  he  might  grow  his 
own  vegetables  and  poultry,  while  the  excellent  cheap 
cloth  of  the  country  would  supply  him  with  clothing. 

If  two  friends  who  were  congenial  spirits  were  to  club 
together  in  such  an  undertaking,  they  might  lead  a  most 
healthy  and  enjoyable  life,  and  might,  in  time  and  with 
care,  make  a  fortune. 

They  would  find  an  ample  field  among  the  inhabitants 
of  the  country  for  any  amount  of  philanthropy,  and 
would  meet  a  ready  return  for  any  expenditure  of  gener- 
ous feeling. 

And  this  country  will  in  a  short  time,  when  the  rail- 
way is  completed  to  Belgrade,  be  within  four  days'  journey 
of  London  ! 

If  instead  of  sheep-farming  the  emigrant  took  to  the 
plow,  he  would  not  at  the  present  time  (1877)  have  much 
difficulty  in  finding  a  suitable  estate. 

In  consequence  of  the  financial  difficulties  of  the  country 
and  the  war,  many  valuable  estates  have  been  thrown  on 
the  market,  and  the  richest  land  can  now  be  bought  at  a 
merely  nominal  value. 

Freehold  estates  of  five  and  six  thousand  acres,  with 
fann-buildings  upon  them,  and  excellent  titles,  are  selling 
at  from  £8,000  to  £12,000.      The  purchase  of  these  estates 


AMATEUR  FARMING.  419 

would  give  a  high  interest  on  capital  if  they  were  simp^ 
let  for  grazing  without  attempting  any  cultivation.  There 
could  not  be  a  more  favorable  time  for  purchasing  land. 

I  have  already  pointed  out  the  best  course  for  an  emi- 
grant to  pursue  who  buys  an  estate  with  the  intention 
of  cultivating  it — namely,  to  reserve  a  proper  amount  of 
capital,  and  introduce  his  improvements  by  degrees. 
Building  is  very  cheap,  if  elaborate  and  fine  work  is  not 
attempted.  In  Macedonia  the  farm-buildings  have  gener- 
ally stone  foundations.  The  walls  are  about  thirty  inches 
thick,  and  are  made  of  sun-dried  bricks,  and  the  roofs  are 
tiled.  This  kind  of  building,  if  plastered  outside  with 
lime,  looks  well,  and  will  last  a  great  length  of  time ;  but 
the  lime  adds  to  the  expense. 

A  farm-building  of  this  description  for  a  man  working 
two  plows,  and  consisting  of  a  dwelling-house  of  two 
rooms,  with  a  veranda,  a  cattle-stable,  and  a  straw-barn, 
can  be  built  for  £80,  including  all  expenses ;  with  lime- 
plaster  it  would  cost  £10  extra,  but  the  money  would  be 
well  expended. 

The  following  is  a  scale  of  daily  wages  generally  paid  in 
that  country : — 

s.    d.        s.  d. 

Laborers 0  10  to  1  0 

Male  Reapers 1     6  "2  0 

Female  "       0  10  "  1  0 

Vinediggers 1     2"1  4 

Shoemakers 2     0  "  2  6 

Tailors 2     0  "  2  10 

Joiners 2    0"2  6 

Masons,  carpenters,  and  stone-cutters  are  paid  by  the 
piece,  or  by  fixed  agreement,  I  pay  a  good  carpenter, 
who  provides  a  lad  as  an  assistant,  £35  a  year,  and  he 
does  all  the  repairs  of  the  estate,  etc. 

In  Appendix  H,  I  give  a  rough  estimate  of  the  cost  of 
setting  up  and  farming  an  estate  of  1,500  acres  on  the 
English  system. 

I  was  much  puzzled  when  I  first  commenced  farming  in 


420  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

Turkey  to  see  lieavy  crops  growing  in  tlie  fields,  and  still 
to  find  tliat  the  amount  of  grain  got  to  market  was  small. 
But  the  reason  is  not  far  to  seek,  and  lies  in  the  wasteful 
system  of  threshing,  and  of  getting  the  grain  to  market. 

The  threshing  I  have  already  described  ;  but  when  the 
grain  is  sent  to  market  it  is  put  in  sacks  holding  about  two 
bushels  each,  and  then  consigned  to  the  care  of  keradjees, 
or  owners  of  pack-animals — horses,  mules,  donkeys,  or 
camels.  On  its  way  to  market  the  sacks  leak,  and  much 
loss  is  sustained.  I  have  seen  the  road  to  Salonica  strewn 
with  grain  for  several  miles,  and  women  with  droves  of 
turkeys  picking  it  up.  It  may  be  fairly  stated  that  from 
the  time  the  grain  is  ready  for  reaping  to  the  time  it  reaches 
the  market  40  per  cent,  is  wasted  under  the.  present  sys- 
tem. How  is  it  possible  that  such  farming  can  pay  ?  If 
an  emigrant  were  to  select  an  estate  within  easy  distance 
of  Salonica,  he  could,  if  roads  are  put  in  order — which  I 
hope  they  will  be — send  his  grain  to  market  in  his  own 
carts. 

A  railway  now  runs  from  Salonica  to  Metrovitza  (a  dis- 
tance of  about  200  miles),  on  its  way  to  Belgrade  ;  when  it 
reaches  that  place  it  will  place  Salonica  in  railway  com- 
munication with  the  whole  of  Europe.  The  plains  of  Seres 
are  also  very  rich,  and,  I  believe,  many  farms  are  to  be 
had  in  that  neighborhood ;  but  the  Macedonian  plains  are 
a  preferable  quarter  for  settlement,  in  consequence  of  pos- 
sessing a  seaport  town. 

I  believe  an  emigrant  would  find  the  purchase  of  land  in 
Turkey  a  perfectly  safe  investment.  So  long  as  it  remains 
Tinder  Ottoman  government  he  would  not  be  disturbed  in 
his  title  ;  and  even  if  the  event  came  to  pass  which  some 
people  think  probable — namely,  that  Turkey  may  change 
hands — it  is  not  likely  to  be  occupied  by  any  uncivilized 
tribe  from  Central  Africa  or  Timbuctoo,  but  by  some  civil- 
ized European  nation,  who  would,  of  course,  respect  the 
rights  of  property.  But  some  very  hard  fighting  will  have 
to  take  place  before  Turkey  in  Europe  passes  out  of  the 
control  of  the  Porte — should  it  ever  happen ! 


AMATEUR  FARMING.  421 

An  emigrant  to  Macedonia  must  remember  that  there — 
as  in  all  other  countries — are  farms  which  will  not  pay 
under  any  cultivation,  sour  lands  which  cannot  be  drained, 
or  which  are  subject  to  floods  which  sweep  away  the  crojDs  ; 
lands  so  far  from  market  that  the  carriage  of  the  grain 
eats  away  the  profits,  etc.,  etc.  A  traveler  visiting  Mace- 
donia in  the  spring,  and  another  in  the  autumn,  would 
give  very  different  accounts  of  the  country.  The  former 
would  find  it  beautifully  green  from  the  mountain-tops  to 
the  plains,  which  would  be  rich  Avith  the  growing  crops  ; 
all  the  lower  and  stony  hills  would  be  covered  with  young 
grass,  and  the  whole  country  would  appear  rich  in  the  ex- 
treme ;  while  in  September  everything  is  yellow,  parched, 
and  dried  up  by  the  hot  sun,  and  the  unobservant  traveler 
would  say  he  had  been  journeying  through  a  desert.  In 
the  late  autumn  the  rains  commence,  and  the  grass  begins 
to  grow  again,  so  that  by  December  there  is  a  good  bite 
for  the  sheep  ;  but,  as  in  California,  when  the  herbage  is 
yellow  and  dried  up,  it  still  retains  plenty  of  nourishment, 
and  I  have  noticed  the  cattle  fat  and  sleek  when  they  have 
been  grazing  on  the  dried-up  grass  of  the  low  hills  adjoin- 
ing the  plains. 

An  American  once  told  me  that  in  California  the  first 
thing  a  settler  should  look  for  is  water,  and  the  second 
land;  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  Macedonia,  for 
any  weU-situated  estate  which  can  be  iiTigated,  and  also 
drained,  is  certain  to  give  a  very  large  return  if  it  be  pro- 
perly cultivated. 


CHAPTER  XXIY. 

THE    CEIMEAIS"   TAETAES. 

Tartars  of  Dobrudja — Their  Faitli — Difficulties  of  Government  in  Turkey — 
Efforts  at  Reform  Frustrated  by  Repeated  Rebellions — The  Sunnites  and 
Shiites — Massacre  of  the  Shiites — Progress  of  Mohammedanism  among 
British  Subjects — Popular  Ignorance  as  to  the  Mohammedan  Faith — 
Moral  Qualities  of  the  Osmanli — "  Young  Turkey  " — Prophecy  of  Turk- 
ish Corruption — Farewell. 

npHERE  is  yet  another  nation  in  Turkey  in  Europe 
-*-  wliicli  can  claim  the  rights  of  Ottoman  subjects ;  and 
if  the  Crimean  Tartars,  or  Tartars  of  the  Dobrudja,  num- 
bered two  millions  instead  of  two  hundred  thousand,  it 
would  be  all  the  better  for  Turkey. 

They  are  a  quiet,  peaceable,  and  industrious  race,  and 
excellent  agriculturists,  but  unfortunately  their  habits  are 
dirty  in  the  extreme. 

In  1784,  when  the  Crimea  passed  into  the  hands  of 
Russia,  the  Crim  Tartars  emigrated  in  large  numbers  to 
Bessarabia,  and  again,  when  in  1812  that  country  also  was 
swallowed  up  by  the  ever-advancing  Russian  wave,  the 
Tartar,  hating  the  Muscovite,  fled  before  him  with  his 
wife  and  family,  his  goods  and  chattels,  and  settled  in 
the  Dobrudja  under  Ottoman  rule. 

After  the  Crimean  war  another  emigration  took  place, 
and  large  colonies  were  established  on  the  fertile  soil  of 
Turkey  in  the  same  quarter,  but  in  this  case  with  poor 
success. 

The  emigrants  were  devoid  of  capital,  and  although  the 
Ottoman  Government  gave  them  lands,  they  had  but  little 
else,  and  they  were  unable  to  stand  the  bad  harvest  which 
followed,  and  thus,  from  want  of  assistance  at  the  right 

422 


THE  CRIMEAN  TARTARS.  423 

moment,  a  colony  was  tlirown  into  poverty  wliicli  miglit 
otherwise,  from  its  natural  industry,  liave  enriched  itself, 
and  also  the  country  it  inhabited. 

These  Tartars  profess  the  Mohammedan  faith,  but  al- 
though strict  observers  of  the  tenets  of  the  Kca-an,  they 
do  not  resent,  like  the  Osmanlis,  a  stranger  entering  their 
houses  while  the  women  are  present ;  neither  are  the  lat- 
ter so  particular  about  covering  theii'  faces  from  the  eyes 
of  the  unbeliever.  Families  of  this  people  still  continue 
to  arrive  in  Turkey,  and  they  have  all  the  patience  and 
quiet  dignity  of  the  Turks,  to  which  stock  of  men  they  in 
reality  belong. 

But  here  again  we  have  another  addition  to  the  nation- 
alities who  claim  the  rights  of  Ottoman  subjects,  and  con- 
sequently add  to  the  difficulties  of  governing  the  mass. 

these  difficulties  are  also  increased  by  the  physical 
aspect  of  many  parts  of  the  country,  both  in  Europe 
and  Asia. 

For  instance,  the  great  mountain-ranges  in  Albania  form 
a  second  Switzerland,  and  being  for  the  most  part  inhab- 
ited by  a  lawless  and  independent  race,  it  is  impossible  to 
apply  to  them  rigid  laAvs  which  could  be  carried  out  with 
ease  in  the  plains  of  Adrianople.  If  the  process  of  reform 
were  pushed  rapidly  in  that  quarter  it  would  immediately 
create  rebellion,  and  rebellion  among  those  mountain 
fastnesses  becomes  a  serious  matter,  for  although  it  may 
be  scotched  with  difficulty,  it  cannot  be  killed.  Reform 
in  Albania  cannot  keep  pace  with  that  in  the  plains,  and 
it  is  the  same  with  many  other  parts  of  the  Turkish 
dominions,  especially  in  Asia  Minor. 

It  is  difficult  enough  in  time  of  peace  to  restrain  these 
independent  mountain  tribes,  but  any  one  who  chooses  to 
examine  into  the  state  of  Albania  prior  to  the  Crimean 
war,  and  the  state  of  that  country  in  the  year  1874,  will 
find  that  great  progress  has  been  made  by  the  Ottoman 
Government,  and  that  order  is  being  pushed  gradually  but 
surely  into  the  very  heart  of  the  mountains.  All  the  bands 
of  restraint  are  however  again  broken,  and  that  country 


424  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

is  thrown  back  into  its  former  disorder,  through  the  anar- 
chy produced  by  civil  war.  It  is  therefore  always  easy 
for  sensation-mongers  and  agitators  to  store  themselves 
with  charges  against  the  Government  of  the  Porte  by 
going  into  these  wild  mountain  districts,  and  there  gather- 
ing their  venom. 

It  has  been  seen  that  the  religious  differences  among  the 
Christian  population  form  a  powerful  element  of  discord, 
and  we  can  appreciate  the  difficulties  that  are  thus  created 
by  the  trouble  we  frequently  have  in  Ireland  in  riots 
between  Roman  Catholics  and  Protestants. 

The  Mohammedans  are  not,  however,  exempt  from  reli- 
gious differences  themselves,  but  their  controversies  are 
narrowed  to  two  sects,  the  Sunnites  and  the  Shiites.  The 
Ottomans  are  rigid  Sunnites,  or  those  who  acknowledge 
the  three  immediate  successors  of  the  prophet,  the  Caliphs 
Abou-beker,  Omar,  and  Othman,  and  their  expositions  of 
the  holy  law. 

The  Shiites  reject  the  authority  of  the  Caliphs,  consid- 
ering them  usurpers,  and  are  followers  of  Ali,  a  cousin 
of  the  prophet,  and  they,  therefore,  cleave  to  the  letter  of 
the  Koran.  They  are  principally  represented  in  the  Per- 
sians ;  but  great  and  bitter  has  been  the  strife  between 
these  two  sects.  Shortly  after  the  Ottomans  gained  pos- 
session of  Constantinople,  the  doctrine  of  the  Shiites 
began  to  make  its  way  among  them,  not^vithstanding 
that  the  Ulema  and  the  great  majority  of  the  people  were 
rigid  Sunnites.  The  conversions  increased  with  such 
rapidity,  that  in  the  reign  of  Sultan  Selim  I.,  a.d.  1512-20, 
so  much  alarm  was  created  that  it  was  determined  to 
stamp  out  this  disease  which  was  eating  its  way  into  their 
beloved  faith. 

Agents  were  sent  all  over  the  empire  to  search  out  the 
names  and  addi-esses  of  all  the  Shiites,  and  after  the  reck- 
oning had  been  carefully  made  it  was  found  that  in  Tur- 
key In  Europe  and  Asia  Minor  there  were  no  less  than 
seventy  thousand  perverts,  including  men,  women,  and 
children. 


THE  CRIMEAN  TARTARS.  425 

Orders  were  then  issued  tliat  tlie  whole  of  these  poor 
people  should  be  immediately  arrested.  Afterward,  as 
many  as  forty  thousand  of  them  were  barbarously  massa- 
cred, and  the  remainder  were  doomed  to  pei-petual  im- 
prisonment. By  a  curious  coincidence,  this  horrible  cru- 
elty, emanating  from  religious  persecution,  occurred  in 
the  same  century  as  the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew. 

The  Mohammedans  show  much  more  toleration  to  Chris- 
tians than  to  sectarian  disturbers  of  their  own  faith. 

They  look  upon  the  former  with  a  kind  of  pity  that 
they  should  be  excluded  from  the  hope  of  paradise,  and 
they  are  so  confident  in  the  strength  and  beauty  of  their 
own  tenets  that  they  do  not  fear  the  loss  of  any  of  their 
flock  by  contact  with  the  Christian  unbeliever.  But  when 
schism  dares  to  place  its  foot  upon  their  own  sacred 
ground,  all  the  religious  fervor  of  their  nature  is  at  once 
launched  against  the  traitor,  and  they  crush  him  as  they 
would  a  venomous  reptile. 

The  massacre  of  the  Shiites  naturally  increased  the  ha- 
tred between  the  two  sects ;  but  if  we  may  accept  the 
opinions  of  Mr.  Palgrave  and  Mr.  Bosworth  Smith — and 
they  are  both  excellent  authorities — the  schism  is  so  far 
healed  by  time,  that  in  the  present  day  any  impending 
danger  to  the  Mohammedan  faith  would  at  once  unite  the 
two  sects  in  the  common  defense  of  their  beloved  religion, 
just  as  Roman  Catholics  and  Protestants  would  at  once 
unite  to  ward  off  a  dangerous  blow  at  Christendom. 

The  question  should  have  a  peculiar  interest  for  English- 
men, in  consequence  of  the  millions  of  Mohammedan  Brit- 
ish subjects,  and  especially  as  the  adherents  to  that  faith 
are  increasing. 

Mr.  Talboys  Wheeler,  in  his  "History  of  India,"  re- 
marks :  "Few  impartial  observers  will  deny  the  fact  that 
to  all  appearance  the  people  of  India  are  drifting,  slowly 
but  surely,  toward  the  religion  of  the  Prophet  of  Arabia 
rather  than  toward  Christianity,  which  is  fi-eely  offered 
to  them,  but  which  they  are  not  prepared  to  accept." 

The  word  "impartial"  here  is  deserving  of  attention; 


426  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

for  in  India  as  well  as  in  Turkey  religious  idiosyncrasies 
beget  such  violent  opinions,  either  one  way  or  the  other, 
that  statements  have  to  be  weighed  in  the  balance  of  rea- 
son, and  analyzed  by  evidence. 

Mr.  Bos  worth  Smith,  in  remarking  upon  the  advance  of 
Islamism,  as  represented  by  Mr.  Wheeler,  says:  "And  if 
this  be  true,  or  nearly  true,  how  profound  the  importance 
to  England,  even  from  an  imperial  point  of  view,  of  a 
sympathetic  study  of  the  religion  which  under  her  very 
rule  threatens  to  become  dominant ;  and  how  far  more 
profoundly  important  to  the  Christian  and  to  the  philan- 
thropist to  understand  and  to  influence  while  yet  he  may 
a  system  which,  long  probably  after  the  British  Empire 
in  India  shall  have  passed  away,  will  be  the  chief  motive- 
power — for  in  the  most  Eastern  coiintries  religion  and  na- 
tional feeling  are  one  and  the  same  thing — among  its  two 
hundred  millions  of  inhabitants.  Yet  probably  nowhere 
is  there  a  more  profound  ignorance  of  Islam  and  its 
founder,  and  a  greater  indifference  to  what  is  doing  in 
the  world  than  in  England.  Popular  preachers  and  teach- 
ers still  call  the  Prophet  of  Arabia  an  impostor ;  and  mili- 
tary officers,  and  even  civil  servants  of  the  Crown,  have 
gone  out  to  India,  passed  years  there,  returned  again,  still 
fancying  that  Mohammedans  are  idolaters. 

The  address  lately  presented  to  Her  Majesty  from  some 
of  her  Mohammedan  subjects  in  India,  expressing  anxiety 
for  the  fate  of  their  co-religionists,  the  Ottomans,  is  an 
evidence  of  fact  in  support  of  the  previous  written  opin- 
ions of  Messrs.  Palgrave,  Bosworth  Smith,  and  Talboys 
Wheeler. 

The  fact  that  many  millions  of  people  are  so  attached 
to  their  religious  belief  that  they  are  ready  to  sacrifice, 
not  only  their  vv^orldly  interests,  but  their  lives,  for  its 
defense,  should,  from  the  very  nature  of  the  case,  com- 
mand the  respect  and  attention  of  all  religious  people. 

It  is  sometimes  asserted,  without  due  consideration,  that 
the  Mohammedan  religion  is  a  bar  to  all  progress,  and 
therefore  for  that  reason  the  Turks  can  never  exist  as 


TEE  CRIMEAN  TARTARS.  427 

members  of  tlie  European  family.  But  is  siicli  a  state- 
ment justified  by  facts?  We  have  the  evidence  of  all 
impartial  men  who  have  lived  among  Mohammedans 
and  studied  their  character,  to  the  effect  that  they  com- 
pare favorably  with  Christians  in  all  the  virtues  which 
unite  in  making  up  the  generic  term  "morality." 

"SATiat  does  Mr.  Bosworth  Smith  say  upon  this  point : 
"The  genuine  Othmanli  has  many  noble,  social,  and  na- 
tional characteristics ;  he  is,  or  was  till  the  example  of  the 
precept  of  the  western  money-makers  influenced  him,  em- 
inently a  man  of  his  word  ;  his  word  was  his  bond,  and  a 
bond  which  was  of  first-rate  security.  He  is  still  sober, 
temperate,  dignified,  and  courageous.  Tenibly  cruel  as  he 
is  when  his  passions  are  aroused,  he  is  at  other  times  gen- 
tle, hospitable,  and  humane.  Nowhere  in  Christendom, 
with  the  one  exception  perhaps  of  K"orway,  are  beasts  of 
burden  and  domestic  animals  treated  with  such  unvaiy- 
ing  kindness  and  consideration  as  they  are  in  Turkey,  and 
nowhere  probably,  in  spite  of  all  the  depressing  influ- 
ences of  polygamy,  and  the  degradation  of  women  gener- 
ally, does  the  mother  retain  more  hold  on  her  children,  or 
do  children  regard  their  mother  T\ith  such  constant  and 
indissoluble  veneration. 

"It  was  not  a  Mussulman,  but  a  Christian  missionary, 
and  he  a  zealous  and  successful  one,  who,  in  rebuking 
some  younger  missionaries  at  Stamboul,  who  were  speak- 
ing contemptuously  of  the  Turks,  remarked,  '  You  will 
see  practiced  here  the  virtues  ice  talk  of  in  Christendom.'' 
An  over-statement,  no  doubt,  but  still  with  some  truth  in 
it,  and  truth  which  we  should  do  well  to  bear  in  mind,  as 
a  makeweight  against  the  official  con^uption  and  the  mis- 
government  and  the  vices  with  which  the  Turks  may  be 
justly  charged,  and  which  those  who  most  admire  what  is 
fine  in  their  national  character  have  the  best  right  to  de- 
plore." 

As  far  as  my  own  experience  is  worth  anything,  it  fully 
confirais  this  opinion  ;  and  if  we  accept  the  fact  that  the 
Turk  stands  on  a  par  with  the  Christian  in  the  general 


428  TURRET  IN  EUROPE. 

practice  of  morality,  what  is  tliere  in  the  nature  of  the 
case  which  is  a  bar  to  all  progress,  and  which  unfits  the 
Turk  to  be  a  member  of  the  European  family  ?  Doubt- 
less the  strongest  argument  in  support  of  this  postulate 
so  adverse  to  the  Turk  is  that  his  religion  permits  poly- 
gamy and  the  seclusion  of  women,  and  that  such  customs 
are  so  contrary  to  the  social  conditions  under  which  mem- 
bers of  the  European  family  live,  that  they  must  clash, 
and  can  never  unite  with  them.  There  is  much  truth  in 
this  aspect  of  the  question,  but  it  is  by  no  means  clear 
that  it  is  an  obstacle  which  will  not  be  removed  by  time, 
and  by  the  increase  of  the  ease  of  communication — on 
the  contrary,  we  have  every  evidence  that  such  a  result 
may  follow. 

Polygamy  is  not  so  general  as  is  supposed,  and  there 
are  numerous  instances  of  Turks  who  have  only  one  wife. 
The  change  which  has  been  made  as  to  the  seclusion  of 
women  is  extraordinary,  and  I  have  already  remarked 
upon  it. 

If  the  ramparts  of  fanaticism  are  so  far  broken,  it  offers 
a  base  for  the  argument  that  a  still  wider  breach  may  be 
made,  as  soon  as  the  means  of  communication  become 
facilitated,  and  the  social  forces  of  Christendom  have 
freer  play. 

The  party  which  represents  what  is  called  "Young 
Turkey"  is,  without  doubt,  leaning  toward  the  West 
and  not  the  East,  and  when  this  party  grows — as  grow  it 
will — social  ambition  will  probably  swamp  the  prejudices 
of  custom  when  the  two  are  found  to  clash. 

This  "  Young  Turkey  "  is  the  product  of  the  Tanzimat 
and  the  after-reforms,  but  the  process  of  incubation  is 
necessarily  slow ;  it  still  lies  warm  within  its  shell,  and 
we  cannot  judge  what  the  plumage  will  be  until  it  is 
hatched  and  reared  into  fuU  growth  \vith  the  food  of  edu- 
cation. 

And  now  that  I  am  about  to  take  leave  of  my  reader, 
the  question  may  pertinently  be  put  to  me — 

If  the  Turks  be  the  estimable  race  which  you  endeavor 


THE  CRIMEAN  TARTARS.  429 

to  prove,  if  tliey  compare  favorably  with  other  European 
races  in  the  qualities  which  fall  under  the  generic  terra  of 
morality,  how  is  it  that  their  country  has  not  made  more 
progress  1 

Surely  such  a  fine  race  as  yon  describe  would  take  care 
to  be  well  governed  ? 

To  this  I  reply  that  a  servant  might  with  as  much 
justice  be  saddled  with  the  faults  of  his  master,  as  the 
Ottoman  race  with  the  faults  of  their  rulers. 

In  my  humble  opinion,  it  is  the  very  virtues  of  the 
Ottoman  people  which  cause  their  patient  submission  to 
misgovernment — their  religion  enjoins  respect  for  their 
rulers,  and  they  do  their  utmost  to  obey  the  command, 
however  trying  the  circumstances  may  be. 

But  their  rulers  ?  They  also  are  Turks,  and  you  confess 
that  they  are  corrupt  in  the  extreme  ? 

I  do  not  for  a  moment  contend  that  every  Turk  is  im- 
maculate— the  rulers,  as  compared  with  the  people,  are 
an  exceedingly  small  minority.  When  they  first  con- 
quered the  country  they  found  the  capital  they  were  to 
inhabit  a  perfect  hotbed  of  intrigue  and  corruption — a 
corruption  which  had  decayed  and  destroyed  the  Byzan- 
tine Empire,  and  they  gradually  fell  under  the  temptation. 

The  result  was  foretold  by  Shemsi  Pasha,  a  descendant 
of  one  of  the  Seljukian  princes,  who  had  been  deposed  by 
the  House  of  Othman,  and  who,  turning  to  one  of  his 
domestics,  said  with  much  glee,  "  At  last  I  have  avenged 
my  house  on  the  House  of  Othman  ;  for  if  the  Ottoman 
dynasty  caused  our  downfall,  I  have  now  made  it  prepare 
its  own." 

"How  has  that  been  done?"  cried  the  old  servant 
gravely. 

"I  have  done  it,"  said  Shemsi,  "by  persuading  the 
Sultan  to  share  in  the  sale  of  his  own  favors.  It  is  true  I 
placed  a  tempting  bait  before  him :  40,000  ducats  make 
no  trifling  sum.  Henceforth  the  Sultan  will  himself  set 
the  example  of  corruption ;  and  corruption  will  destroy 
the  empire." 


430  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

Tliis  was  at  the  close  of  tlie  sixteenth  century,  and  the 
prophecy  has  been  true  to  the  letter  so  far.  The  reason 
why  the  Sultans  lost  their  dignity  and  their  honor  by 
stooiDing  to  this  venality  was  to  be  found,  as  I  have  al- 
ready shown,  in  the  change  in  their  education,  which  was 
henceforth  directed  by  the  harem. 

This  enfeebled  the  head,  and  the  corruption  of  the  body 
of  the  State  followed. 

In  judging  of  Turkey  we  must  not  forget  the  innumera- 
ble difficulties  which  stand  in  the  way  of  good  government, 
however  honest  and  energetic  the  rulers  might  be.  I  have 
endeavored  to  point  these  out  fairly  but  plainly — they  are 
difficulties  which  have  nothing  to  do  with  the  Turks,  and 
they  would  be  experienced  with  as  much  force  if  that 
nation  did  not  exist. 

I  have  also  endeavored  to  show  that  the  ability  of  Otto- 
man rulers  for  organizing  a  good  administration  is  very 
great ;  but  they  lack  the  honesty  and  energy  to  carry  it 
out.  Of  this  I  am  quite  sure,  that  if  England,  or  any  other 
power,  were  suddenly  called  upon  to  rule  the  Ottoman 
dominions,  they  would  find  the  Turks  more  easy  to  govern 
than  any  other  of  their  subjects. 

We  find  then  that  the  administration  is  well  organized  ; 
that  a  large  portion  of  the  Ottoman  subjects  are  so  consti- 
tuted as  to  be  easily  governed,  and  all  that  is  required  is 
an  honest  and  energetic  executive,  and  time.  We  there- 
fore know  what  is  necessary,  which  is  the  first  step  toward 
its  attainment.  And  now,  Reader,  that  we  have  traveled 
together  from  the  Black  Sea  to  the  Gulf  of  Salonica,  I  trust 
that — although  I  have  in  many  places  stated  my  opinions 
boldly  because  I  felt  them  strongly — we  have  not  quarreled 
by  the  way,  and  that  we  may  now  shake  hands,  and  bid 
each  other — Farewell ! 


APPENDIX  A. 

Egbert  College,  Coxstanti»"Ople. 

This  college,  established  by  Irad^  of  H.  I.  M.  tlie  Sultan, 
offers  to  students  every  facility  for  acquiring  a  complete  education. 
It  is  provided  with  an  able  faculty  of  instruction  from  America, 
as  well  as  the  best  qualified  Armenian,  Bulgarian,  French,  Greek, 
and  Turkish  professors.  It  is  furnished  with  a  fine  cabinet  of 
mineral  and  geological  specimens,  and  with  a  complete  apparatus 
for  the  study  of  chemistry  and  the  various  branches  of  natural 
science. 

The  younger  students  are  under  the  care  of  a  matron  of  the 
highest  qualifications,  and  all  are  under  the  constant  supervision 
of  the  teacbers,  who  board  at  the  same  table  and  reside  in  the 
building  with  the  students. 

It  is  the  object  of  the  institution  to  combine  the  highest  moral 
training  with  the  most  complete  mental  discipline,  and  with  a  due 
care  for  physical  culture. 

Admissiox. —  Students  are  not  received  into  the  preparatory 
department  below  the  age  of  ten,  nor  into  the  college  department 
below  the  age  of  fourteen.  All  applicants  are  expected  to  present 
satisfactory  evidence  of  their  good  moral  character,  and  they  will 
be  allowed  to  remain  in  the  college  only  so  long  as  this  character  is 
maintained.  Those  applying  for  admission  into  the  college  depart- 
ment must  be  able  to  pass  an  examination  in  the  preparatory 
studies. 

Students  maybe  admitted  to  any  part  of  the  course  for  which 
they  are  fitted,  and  will  not  be  required  to  pursue  any  studies  in 
which  they  are  already  proficient.  Those  who  desire  it  are  per- 
mitted to  pursue  only  those  studies  which  belong  strictly  to  a  com- 
mercial education,  but  no  one  is  recommended  to  take  anything  less 
than  the  full  course,  which  has  been  planned  to  give  that  complete 
mental  discipline  which  is  essential  to  success  in  any  prominent 
position  in  life.  * 

431 


432 


TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 
TABULAE   VIEW    OF    THE    COURSE 


Mathematics. 

Natural 
Science. 

Law  and 
Philosophy. 

Geography 
and  History. 

English, 

Rhetoric, 

and  Oratory. 

Mental  Arith- 
metic. 

School  Arith- 
metic. 

University 
Arithmetic. 

Elementary 
Geometry. 

Natural 
History. 

Phvsical  and 
Political 
Geography 
of  the 
World. 

Primer. 

Reading  and 
Spellmg. 

Definition. 

Writing  and 
Dictation. 

Term  1. 

O 

«        3 

Elements  of 
Algebra. 
Book-keep- 
ing. 

University 
Algebra, 
Book-keep- 
ing.* 

University 
Algebra. 

Ancient 
Geography. 

Ancient 
History. 

History  Greek 
Empire. 

Thro'  the 
Year. 

Reading. 

Writing. 

Dictation. 

Composition. 

Analysis. 

1 

a 

^^        2 

l|        • 
o 
O 

3 

Geometry. 

Trigonome- 
try. 

Stirveying. 

Zoology. 

Physiology 
and 
Hygiene. 

Botany.* 

History 
Middle 
Ages. 

History 
Modem 
Times. 

Thro'  the 
Year. 

Grammar. 

Reading. 

Composition. 

Conversation. 

English  Prose 
Writers. 

Third 
College  Year. 

CO                   ts              l-« 

Navigation. 

Analytical 
Geometry.* 

Calctilus.* 

Physics. 

Chemistry. 

Chemistry. 

Political 
Economy. 

Commercial 
Law. 

History  of 
Turkey. 

History  of 
United 
States. 

Forensic  Dis- 
putation. 

Shakespeare. 

Rhetoric. 

Shakespeare. 

Logic. 

Essays. 

1 

"3 

3 

Mathematics 
of  Astron- 
omy. 

Astronomy. 

Analytical 
Chemistry.* 

Gfiology. 

Mineralogy.* 

Quantitative 
Analysis.* 

Mental 

Philosophy. 
Paley's 

Evidences. 
History  of 

Philosophy. 
Moral 

Philosophy. 
International 

Law. 
Butler's 

Analogy. 

History  of 
Civilization. 

Philosophy  of 
History. 

Elements  of 
Criticism. 

Oratory. 

Oratory. 

APPENDIX  A. 
OF    STUDY    IX    ROBERT    COLLEGE. 


433 


Armenian. 

Bulgarian. 

French. 

Greek. 

Latin. 

Turkish. 

Modem 
Grammar. 

Reading. 

Spelling. 

Writing. 

Reading. 

Oral 
Exercises. 

Grammar. 

Writing. 

Ollendorff. 

Reading. 

Writing. 

Primer. 

Grammar. 

Writing. 

Grammar. 

Primer. 

Madkhal-i- 
Kavaid. 

Writing. 

Arithmetic. 

Modem 
Grammar. 

Reading. 

Translation. 

Ancient 
Grammar. 

Thro'  the 
Year. 

Grammar. 

Reading. 

Parsing. 

Syntax. 

Compositions. 

Thro'  the 
Year. 

Lexicology, 
No.  1. 

Dictation. 

Reading. 

Thro'  the 
Year. 

Modem 
Grammar. 

Parsing. 

Composition. 

History. 

Correspond- 
ence. 

Calligraphy. 

Grammar. 

Reader. 

Reader. 

Turkish 
Grammar. 

Turkish 
History. 

Calligraphy. 

Geometry. 

Ancient 
Grammar. 

Relation  of 
.■Ancient  to 
Modern 
Armenian. 

Translation 
from 

Ancient  to 
Modern. 

Slavic  Gram- 
mar. 

Translation. 

Syntax  and 
Parsing  in 
Slavic. 

Bulgarian 
History  and 
Literature. 

Thro'  the 
Year. 
Lexicology, 
No.  2. 

Dictation. 

Composition. 

Reading. 

French 
Literature 
of  16  and  17 
Centuries. 

Ancient 
Grammar. 

Maori's 
Fables. 

Lncian. 

Ancient 
Grammar. 

Cyropnedia. 
Memorabilia. 

Caesar. 
Caesar. 
VirgU. 
Composition. 

Arabic  Gram- 
mar. 

Poetry. 

Calligraphy. 

Der^'ish 
Pasha's 
Na:  ural 
Philosophy. 

Translation. 

Ancient 
Armenian. 

Poetry  and 
History. 

Composition 
in  Ancient 
Armenian. 

Bulgarian 
History  and 
Literature. 

Translation 
from 

Bulgarian 
into  Slavic. 

Composition 
in  Slavic. 

Thro'  the 

Year. 

Lexicology, 

No.  3. 
Dictation. 
Composition. 
Discussions. 
Literature  of 

18  and  19 

Centuries. 
Corneille, 

Racine,  and 

Moliere. 

Syntax. 

Composition 
in  Ancient 
Greek. 

Lycurgua. 

Chrysostome. 

Plato. 

Virgil. 

Composition. 

Cicero. 

Composition. 

Horace. 

Arabic  Gram- 
mar. 

Hamayoun- 
uame. 

Calligraphy. 

New  Chemis 
try. 

Ancient 
Literature. 

Slavic  Litera- 
tui-e. 

Demosthenes. 
Homer. 
Euripides. 
Aristophanes. 

Tacitus. 
Juvenal. 

Rhetoric. 

Correspond- 
ence. 

Calligraphy. 

Natural 
History. 

28 


434  TVRKET  IN^  EVBOPE. 

Studies. — The  particulars  of  the  course  of  study  in  each  de- 
partment, and  during  each  year,  will  be  found  in  the  tabular  view. 
This,  exclusive  of  the  preparatory  department,  occupies  four  years, 
and  the  degree  of  Bacheloe  of  Aets  will  be  conferred  upon  those 
who  regularly  complete  it.  The  studies  marked  with  an  *  are 
optional.  Every  student  is  expected  to  take  a  thorough  course  in 
the  English  language,  and  in  his  own  vernacular.  The  other  lan- 
guages, both  ancient  and  modern,  are  optional.  Drawing,  paint- 
ing, music  (vocal  and  instrumental),  and  the  German  language  are 
taught  by  special  masters,  at  an  extra  price,  to  those  who  desire  it. 
Lessons  in  declamation,  in  the  different  languages,  are  given  to  all 
the  students,  through  the  whole  course  in  both  departments. 

Public  lectures  in  English  and  French  are  delivered  every  week 
to  the  students,  on  literary,  scientific,  and  historical  subjects.  Ex- 
aminations take  place  at  Christmas,  at  Easter,  and  at  the  close  of 
the  college  year  in  July.  Graduates  of  the  college  may  remain 
after  the  completion  of  the  ordinary  course,  to  continue  their 
studies  in  chemistry,  pharmacy,  mining,  mental  philosophy,  etc. 

Teems. —  The  college  year  commences  loth  September,  and 
closes  the  last  Thursday  in  July,  with  two  weeks'  vacation  at 
Christmas  and  two  weeks'  at  Easter.  Each  student  will  pay 
forty-four  Turkish  liras  a  year  for  board  and  tuition,  and  is  ex- 
pected to  come  provided  with  one  mattress,  six  sheets,  one  pillow, 
six  pillow-cases,  one  yargan,  two  flannel  blankets,  six  table-nap- 
kins, six  towels,  a  rug  or  carpet,  and  each  one  will  be  required  to 
purchase  a  college  uniform.  Day  scholars  pay  ten  Turkish  liras 
a  year  for  tuition.  All  bills  must  be  paid  in  advance  every  six 
months,  15th  September  and  loth  February. 

In  the  spring  of  1871  the  college  will  remove  to  the  new  and 
splendid  buildings  in  course  of  erection  for  it  at  Eoumeli  Hissar. 

Cyeus  Hamlin",  D.D.,  Principal. 


APPE]SDIX  B. 

Bulgarian    Church. 

The  following  is  the  full  text  of  the  firman  which  settles  the 
long  pending  dispute  between  the  Bulgarian  and  the  Greek  Patri- 
archate, on  the  subject  of  a  '^  national  "  episcopacy  : — 

"  The  dearest  subject  of  our  wishes  is  that  the  inhabitants  of 
the  Empire,  our  faithful  subjects,  should  enjoy  perfect  peace  and 
security  in  the  exercise  of  their  religion  and  worship,  as  in  all 
other  general  respects,  and  that  they  should  draw  toward  each 
other  by  the  exchange  of  the  best  sentiments,  as  becomes  men  who 
are  citizens  of  a  common  country,  so  that,  by  means  of  such  good 
will  and  mutual  understanding,  they  should  be  able  to  aid,  each 
in  his  proportion,  the  efforts  we  constantly  devote  to  two  important 
ends — the  increase  of  the  prosperity  of  our  States,  and  their 
advancement  in  the  paths  of  progress  and  civilization. 

"  Hence  we  have  seen  with  regi'et  the  misunderstandings  and 
dissensions  which,  contrary  to  the  spirit  which  animates  us,  have 
for  some  time  past  arisen  between  the  Greek  Patriarchate  and 
the  orthodox  Bulgarians,  as  regards  the  definition  of  the  relations 
which  should  subsist  between  that  Patriarchate  and  the  Bulgarian 
metropolitans,  bishojis,  and  subordinate  clergy. 

"  The  conferences  and  negotiations  which  have  taken  place  with 
a  view  to  a  satisfactory  settlement  of  these  differences  have  re- 
sulted in  the  following  provisions  : — 

"1.  There  shall  be  constituted,  under  the  title  of  'The  Bulga- 
rian Exarchate,'  a  separate  spiritual  administration,  which  shall 
embrace  the  metropolitan  and  episcopal  sees  hereafter  mentioned, 
as  also  some  other  localities.  The  control  of  the  religious  and 
spiritual  affairs  of  such  administration  devolves  exclusively  upon 
this  Exarchate. 

"2.  The  most  ancient  in  rank  of  the  metropolitans,  who  shall 
be  at  the  head  of  this  administration,  shall  take  the  title  of  Exarch, 
and  shall  have  the  legal  and  permanent  presidency  of  the  Bulga- 
rian synod  which  shall  be  attached  to  him. 

435 


436  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

"  3.  The  internal  spiritual  organization  of  this  Exarchate  shall 
be  submitted  for  approval  and  confirmation  of  our  Imperial  Govern- 
ment. Its  powers  shall  be  defined  by  an  organic  code  which  must 
be  in  conformity  on  all  points  with  the  established  laws  and  relig- 
ious principles  of  the  Orthodox  Church.  This  code  shall  be  drawn 
up  in  such  way  as  to  entirely  exclude  all  interference,  direct  or 
indirect,  on  the  part  of  the  Patriarch,  with  monastic  affairs,  and 
more  especially  with  the  election  of  the  Exarch  and  the  Bishops. 
As  soon  as  the  election  of  the  Exarch  shall  have  taken  place» 
the  Bulgarian  synod  will  give  notice  of  it  to  the  Patriarch,  who 
will  remit  without  the  least  delay  the  necessary  letters  of  confir- 
mation according  to  the  laws  of  the  church. 

*'4.  The  Exarch  shall  be  named  by  Imperial  lerat.  He  will 
be  bound,  in  conformity  with  ecclesiastical  rules,  to  commemorate 
the  name  of  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople.  Wlioever  may  be 
judged  worthy  of  the  dignity  of  Exarch  must  be  approved  and 
confirmed  as  such  by  our  Imperial  Government  before  his  religious 
consecration  can  be  proceeded  with. 

"  5.  In  all  matters  concerning  localities  within  the  limits  of  his 
administration,  in  which  he  may  have  legal  and  regular  authority 
to  intervene,  the  Exarch  can  have  direct  recourse  to  the  local 
authorities,  and,  if  necessary,  to  the  Sublime  Porte,  and  especially 
the  diplomas  of  the  monks  under  his  jurisdiction  shall  only  be 
delivered  on  his  requisition. 

"6.  In  all  affairs  relating  to  the  orthodox  worship,  which  call 
for  a  mutual  understanding,  in  which  the  synod  of  the  Exarchate 
requires  to  refer  to  the  (Ecumenical  Patriarch  and  his  synod  of 
metropolitans,  the  latter  will  hasten,  on  their  part,  to  afford  the 
requisite  assistance,  and  forward  their  replies  to  the  communica- 
tions addressed  to  them. 

"7.  The  synod  of  the  Bulgarian  Exarchate  is  bound  to  obtain 
the  holy  oils  in  usage  in  the  church  from  the  Patriarchate  of  Con- 
stantinople. 

**8.  The  bishops,  archbishops,  and  metropolitans  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  Patriarchate  of  Constantinople,  may  freely  pass 
through  the  districts  subjected  to  the  Bulgarian  Exarchate,  as,  on 
the  other  hand,  may  the  bishops,  archbishops,  and  metropolitans 
of  the  Bulgarian  Exarchate  pass  through  the  dioceses  placed  under 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  Patriarchate  of  Constantinople.  They  are 
at  liberty  to  sojourn,  for  the  transaction  of  business,  in  the  chief 


APPENDIX  B.  437 

towns  of  the  Vilaiets  and  other  residences  of  the  Government 
authorities  ;  but  beyond  the  limits  of  their  authority,  they  can 
neither  convoke  synods,  nor  interfere  in  the  affairs  of  Christians 
who  are  not  under  their  jurisdiction,  nor  officiate  in  any  place 
without  the  permission  of  the  bishop  of  the  locality. 

''  9.  In  the  same  way  as  the  Presbytery  of  the  Holy  Places, 
situated  at  the  Phanar,  is  affiliated  to  the  Patriarchate  of  Jeru- 
salem, and  placed  under  its  authority,  so  also  the  Bulgarian 
Presbytery  and  the  Church  attached  to  it,  situated  in  the  same 
quarter,  shall  be  placed  under  the  control  of  the  Bulgarian  Exarch. 
Whenever  that  dignitary  shall  have  occasion  to  come  to  Constan- 
tinople, he  is  authorized  to  take  up  his  abode  at  the  Bulgarian 
Presbytery  of  the  Phanar.  He  will  also,  on  the  occasion  of  his 
visits  to  the  Capital,  and  of  officiating  during  his  sojourn,  adopt 
the  rules  and  usages  followed  in  like  case  by  the  Patriarchs  of 
Jerusalem,  Antioch,  and  Alexandria. 

"10.  The  Bulgarian  Exarchate  comprises  in  its  spiritual  juris- 
diction the  towns  and  districts  of  Kustchuk,  Silistria,  Shumla, 
Tirnova,  Sofia,  Vratcha,  Lovtcha,  Widdin,  Nisch,  Kustendil, 
Samakov,  Veles  (with  the  exception  of  about  twenty  villages 
situated  along  the  coast  of  the  Black  Sea  between  Varna  and 
Kustendji,  whose  inhabitants  are  not  Bulgarians,  as  also  the  towns 
of  Varna,  Mesembria,  and  Akhioli),  the  Sandjak  of  Slivmia  (ex- 
cept a  few  villages  on  the  coast),  the  district  of  Sisopolis,  the  town, 
of  Philippopolis,  the  district  of  Stanimaka  (with  the  exception  of 
the  villages  of  Kokline,  Vodnia,  Arnaoutkeoi,  Novo-Selo,  Allan, 
Batchkovo,  Belatchitza),  and  the  metropolitan  diocese  of  Philip- 
popolis (excepting  the  monasteries  of  Patchkovo,  St.  Anarghiri,  St. 
Paraskeve,  and  St.  George).  The  Panaya  quarter  shall  also  be 
under  the  authority  of  the  Bulgarian  Exarchate;  nevertheless, 
such  of  the  inhabitants  of  that  quarter  as  do  not  desire  to  belong 
to  the  Bulgarian  Church  and  Exarchate  are  at  perfect  liberty  to 
remain  apart  from  them.  The  details  of  these  various  jurisdic- 
tions shall  be  regulated  by  joint  understanding  between  the  Greek 
Patriarchate  and  the  Bulgarian  Exarchate  in  conformity  with 
Ecclesiastical  Law. 

"If  the  whole,  or,  at  least,  the  third,  of  the  other  inhabitants 
of  the  localities  above  enumerated,  desire  to  place  themselves,  with 
regard  to  their  religious  affairs,  under  the  authority  of  the  Bul- 
garian Exarchate,  and  their  requests  to  this  effect  have  been 


438  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

maturely  considered,  they  shall  be  permitted  to  do  so ;  but  only 
on  condition  that  it  is  with  the  expressed  desire  and  free  will  of 
the  whole  or  at  least  the  third  of  the  population.  But  should  this 
be  taken  as  a  pretext  to  sow  discord  and  dissension  among  the 
inhabitants,  those  guilty  of  such  intrigues  shall  be  held  responsible 
for  them,  and  punished  according  to  law. 

*'ll.  The  monasteries  situated  within  the  limits  of  the  Bul- 
garian Exarchate,  which,  in  virtue  of  Ecclesiastical  Laws,  are 
subject  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Patriarchs  of  Constantinople, 
shall  be  amenable  to  the  same  rules  and  conditions  as  heretofore. 

"The  provisions  above  enumerated — being  considered  of  a 
nature  to  give  adequate  satisfaction  to  the  legitimate  wants  of 
both  parties,  and  to  put  an  end  to  the  regretable  disputes  now  ex- 
isting— have  been  confirmed  by  our  Imperial  Government,  and 
the  present  Sovereign  Order  has  been  given  to  announce  that  we 
desire  it  should  have  the  force  of  law,  and  that  no  one  venture  to 
contravene  it." 


APPEl^DIX  0. 

Population-. 

Perhaps  the  most  accurate  statement  published  is  that  of  the 
German  statisticians,  who  make  the  total  population  in  Euro- 
pean Turkey  proper  as  16,430,000,  exclusive  of  the  tributary 
states  of  Eoumania,  Servia,  and  Montenegi'o.  On  the  other  hand, 
Mr.  Jakschitz,  the  Servian  Government  statistician,  gives  the  fol- 
lowing estimate : — 

Vilafets.  Motammedan.    Non-Mohammedan.     PoTjJia^ion 

Constantinople 183,540  144,210  327,750 

Edirneh  (Adrianople) . . .  523,009  831,558  1,354,567 

Tuna  (Danube) 819,226  1,175,601  1,994,827 

Selanik  (Salonica) 429,410  598,731  1,028,141 

Janina  (Janina) 250,649  460,601  711,250 

Prisrend  (Roumelia) . . . .  789,934  550,537  1,340,471 

Boshmaili  (Bosnia) 493,148  864,836  1,357,984 

Ghirit   (Crete) 38,000  162,000  200,000 

Army 82,539  ..  82,539 

3,609,455  4,788,074  8,397,529 

It  "will  be  seen  that  one  estimate  is  nearly  double  that  of  the 
other ;  but  from  my  own  experience  of  the  country,  I  should  be 
inclined  to  say -that  the  greater  was  the  more  accurate  than  tlie 
lesser  computation.  M.  Boue,  in  his  work  on  Turkey  in  Europe, 
gives  the  number  of  "Turks  "  at  only  700,000  ;  and  he  is  probably 
correct  if,  by  "  Tui-ks,"  he  means  the  descendants  of  the  ancient 
conquerors  of  the  country  and  not  the  whole  Mohammedan  popu- 
lation. 

The  following  is  the  estimate  of  population,  as  given  byUbicini, 
of  the  whole  population  of  the  Empire,  first  by  race  and  secondly 
by  religion:  — 

439 


440  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

Division  of  the  Population. 

I. — Eaces. 

f  Ottomans 13,500,000 

^^°^P'                         \  Turkomans 300,000 

Turk 14,020,000  -^^  Tartars 220,000 

f  Greeks 2,100,000 

^^^^"^P-                        \  Tchinganeh 220,000 

Greco-Latin 3,520,000  j^  Albanians 1,200,000 

r  Serbo-Croats 1,500,000 

.  .  ^.nn      Bulgarians 3,000,000 

Slavonic 4,550,000  j  Cossacks 32,000 

l^  Lissovans 18,000 

.  ...  nn.  (  Circassians 1,000,000 

C^eorgian 1,020,000  J  ^^^^.^^^ 20000 

Hindoo Gipsies 212,000 

f  Armenians 2,500,000 

Persian 3,620,000  \  Kurds 1,000,000 

1^  Druses,  etc 120,000 

r  Jews 158,000 


Semitic , 1,611,000^ 


Arabs 1,000,000 

Chaldeans 160,000 

^  Syro-Maronites ...        293,000 


Total 28,553,000 

II. — Beligioxs. 
Mussulmans 18, 938,000 

r  Osmanlis 13,500,000 

Tartars 220,000 

Turkomans 300,000 

Albanians 1,050,000 

Serbo-Croats 448,000 

Bulgarians 60,000 

Circassians 1,000,000 

Kurds 1,000,000 

t  Arabs 1,000,000 


Sunnites 18,578,000^ 


APPENDIX  a 


441 


Persian  Sects. 
Mixed 


Druses,  etc. 
Gipsies .... 


Christians 9,615,000 


Greco-Eussian  Church  3,225,000 


Greeks 

Albanians 

Tchinganeh 

Serbo- Croats 

Cossacks-Dobrudjas. 
Staro-Viertzi 


Armenian  Church . 
Bulgarian  Church, 
Nestorian  Church. 
Jacobite  Church . . 


Armenians . 
Bulgarians . 
Chaldeans.. 
Syrians . . . . 


'  Greeks .... 

Armenians. 

Bulgarians . 

Eoman Catholic  Church   670,000^  Chaldeans. 

Syrians . . . . 
Maronites . 
Latins 


Protestant  Church Armenians . 


Jews. 


120,000 
240,000 


2,035,000 

50,000 

220,000 

870,000 

9,000 

41,000 

2,920,000 

2,450,000 

130,000 

65,000 

63,000 

45,000 

2,000 

30,000 

8,000 

220,000 

302,000 

5,000 

150,000 


Total....  28,553,000 


Turkish  ADMiisrisTRATioK. 

The  head  of  the  Vilaiet  is  called  a  Vali,  or  governor-general, 
and  he  possesses  considerable  powers,  which  he  wields  from  the 
head-quarters  of  his  province.  His  abuse  of  independence  is 
checked  by  his  being  nominated  by  the  Sultan,  who  can  depose 
him  at  will  ;  and  it  was  the  abuse  of  this  power  by  Sultan  Abdul 
Aziz  which  caused  so  much  confusion  and  corruption  throughout 
the  Empire  during  the  last  twenty  years.  A  Vali  had  hardly 
arrived  at  his  head- quarters  when  he  was  superseded  by  another  ; 
indeed,  I  know  of  one  Vildiet  which  had  two  successive  Valis 
appointed,  and  neither  had  even  time  to  get  to  his  post  before  he 
was  superseded. 

The  Vali  represents  the  executive  power  in  all  branches  of  the 
administration,  except  those  of  the  judicial  and  military,  and  all 
other  heads  of  departments  are  under  his  authoi'ity.  He  has 
charge  of  the  police,  and  is  responsible  for  carrying  out  the  sen- 
tences of  the  law.  To  assist  him  in  his  labors  he  has  a  second  in 
command,  called  Miiavm,  who  represents  him  in  his  absence  with 
the  following  members  of  his  council : — 

1.  The  Defterdar,  or  book-keeper,  has  charge  of  everything 
connected  with  finance,  and  with  all  accounts  of  the  Vilaiet ;  he 
is  under  the  direction  of  the  Vali,  but  is  responsible  to  the  cen- 
tral Government  at  Constantinople. 

2.  The  Mektouhji,  or  chief  secretary,  who  has  charge  of  all  the 
official  correspondence. 

3.  Secretary  of  Foreign  Affairs,  who,  as  his  name  implies,  is  an 
intermediary  between  the  local  authorities  and  any  foreigners  who 
may  be  residing  in  the  province. 

4.  Officers  of  Public  Instruction — commerce,  agriculture,  high- 
ways, surveys,  census,  registers  and  the  chief  of  police. 

All  these  officials  are  under  officers  of  similar  and  higher  institu- 
tions at  the  Porte,  so  that  although  the  Vali  directs,  he  does  not 

442 


APPEXDIX  D.  443 

appoint  them.  The  object  of  this  organization  is  a  good  one,  as 
it  is  intended  to  prevent  that  subserviency  which  miglit  result  if 
the  appointment  of  these  officials  rested  with  the  Vali ;  so  that 
although  they  are  bound  to  obey  his  instructions,  they  are  not 
dependent  upon  his  favor  for  their  appointment. 

The  administration  of  the  Sandjalcs,  or  Livds,  is  simply  a  reduced 
copy  of  that  of  the  Vilaiet.  At  its  head  is  a  governor,  or  Mutessa- 
rif,  who  is  the  representative  of  the  Vali,  from  whom  he  receives 
his  instructions  ;  but  he  is  appointed  by  Imperial  iradeh  ;  and 
this  principle  runs  through  the  whole  organization.  He  is  as- 
sisted by  the  Muhassebehji,  sub-director  of  finance,  and  by  the 
TahrircU  Mudiri,  or  secretary  to  the  Liva,  and  by  sub-officers  of 
all  the  departments  named  in  the  council  of  the  Vali. 

In  cases  of  urgent  importance  all  the  Mutessarifs  can  appeal  di- 
rect to  the  Porte,  without  the  intervention  of  the  Vali.  The  Cazas 
are  governed  by  a  Caimacam  or  sub-governor,  nominated  by  the 
Porte,  and  he  has  under  him  sub-officers  of  all  the  departments  of 
finance,  correspondence,  etc.,  etc. 

The  administration  of  the  Nah'ielis,  or  communes,  was  re- 
formed in  1876.  By  the  new  law  each  village  and  each  group  of 
chifliks  (farms)  which  make  up  a  population  occupying  at  least 
200  houses  constitute  a  Nah'ieh,  and  is  governed  by  a  Mudir,  who 
is  elected  each  year  by  the  votes  of  the  inhabitants,  and  is  con- 
firmed by  the  Vali  of  the  district.  The  Mudir  has  an  assistant  or 
Muavin,  who  takes  his  place  in  his  absence.  If  the  village  or 
farms  are  entirely  peopled  by  Christians,  both  the  Mudir  and 
Muavin  are  Christians.  If  the  population  is  mixed,  the  Mudir  is 
taken  from  the  side  which  has  the  majority,  and  the  Muavin  from 
the  minority. 

The  duties  of  the  Mudirs  are  similar  to  those  of  Caimacams, 
whom  they  are  supposed  to  represent.  In  this  case  we  have  the 
election  of  their  subordinate  rulers  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  peo- 
ple, and  Mohammedans  and  Christians  have  equal  rights.  The 
same  is  the  case  with  the  Codja-bashis  of  the  villages  and  farms ; 
but  their  duties  are  simply  limited  to  carrying  out  the  orders  of 
the  Mudir,  and  attending  to  the  transmission  of  orders,  and  the 
collection  of  taxes,  etc. 

Besides  all  these  officers,  the  Vali  is  assisted  in  his  government 
by  an  Ad^ninistrative  Council,  or  Medjliss-i-idareh.  These  are 
permanent  Councils  attached  to  each  Vilaiet,  Liva,  Caza,  and  Xa- 


444  TURRET  IN  EUROPE. 

hieli,  who  deliberate  openly  upon  all  affairs  relative  to  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  Vil^iet,  etc.,  etc. 

The  Medjliss-i-idar^h  of  the  Vilaietis  composed  of  the  Yali,  who 
sits  ex  officio  as  President,  of  the  Chief  Magistrate  of  the  Court  of 
the  Vildiet,  of  the  three  Directors  of  Finance,  of  the  Secretary 
and  Foreign  Secretary  of  the  ecclesiastical  heads  of  the  non-Mus- 
sulman communities,  of  four  other  members  (two  Mussulmans 
and  two  Christians)  elected  by  the  inhabitants. 

Besides  the  permanent  Council  there  is  an  Annual  Coimcil, 
which  assembles  every  year  at  a  fixed  time  at  the  head-quarters  of 
the  Vildiet,  under  the  presidency  of  the  Vali.  The  duration  of 
each  sitting  does  not  exceed  four  days. 

The  Administrative  Councils  of  the  Livd  is  composed  of  the 
Mutessanf,  as  President,  the  Mufti  of  the  Sandjak,  the  Cadi  of 
the  Central  Caza,  of  the  Christian  Metropolitan  and  Jewish  Eabbi, 
where  there  is  one,  of  the  Muhassebedji,  or  Controller  of  the  Va- 
coufs,  of  tlie  Secretary,  and  of  four  elected  members,  of  which  two 
are  Christians  and  two  Mussulmans. 

The  Council  of  the  Cazas  is  composed  of  the  Mufti  and  of  the 
Cadi,  of  the  Secretary,  the  non-Mussulman  ecclesiastical  heads, 
and  of  three  elected  members. 

The  Council  of  the  Nahiehs  is  compose  of  not  less  than  four, 
and  not  more  than  eight  members,  all  appointed  by  election  of  the 
people.  The  members  must  be  Ottoman  subjects,  of  not  less  than 
thirty  years  of  age,  and  paying  at  least  100  piastres  in  direct  taxes 
and  must  never  have  suffered  imprisonment  by  law. 

If  the  community  is  composed  of  all  Christians,  the  members 
are  so  also  ;  but  where  the  community  is  mixed,  half  are  Mussul- 
mans and  half  Christians. 

In  the  Communes,  or  Nahi^hs,  there  are  yet  other  Councils 
(Medjliss),  which  date  from  the  Ottoman  conquest,  and  are  called 
Demogeronties,  or  Ancient  Councils.  They  are  composed  of  from 
three  to  twelve  members  by  villages  ;  the  members  are  elected  an- 
nually by  the  inhabitants,  and  are  generally  re-elected.  The 
Imam,  or  the  priest,  according  to  the  religious  persuasion  of  the 
village,  sits  ex  officio  on  the  Council.  •  They,  in  concert  with  the 
Mouhtar,  or  Mayor  of  the  village,  assess  the  taxes  of  its  inhabit- 
ants. The  Mouktars  are  responsible  for  the  collection  of  the 
taxes,  each  from  his  own  co-religionists. 

"We  have  now  to  consider  the  Courts  of  Justice  which  are  at- 


APPENDIX  D.  445 

tachcd  to  the  Yilaiets,  Livds,  and  Cazas.  In  one  of  tlie  public 
speeches  lately  made  with  the  object  of  exciting  antagonism  to 
Turkey  and  its  institutions,  I  saw  it  stated  that  what  was  wanted 
for  that  country,  and  what  it  should  be  made  to  adopt,  was  good 
laws,  such  as  may  be  found  in  the  Codes  Napoleon,  Xow  this 
happens  to  be  precisely  what  exists. 

There  are  most  admirable  laws  based  on  the  very  Codes  Napo- 
leon, relating  to  real  property,  commerce,  etc.,  etc.,  and  all  of 
which  are  translated  into  French,  and  published  in  Constantinople, 
so  that  any  one  who  runs  may  read.*  These  laws  are  most  exten- 
sive and  exact,  and  deal  with  the  most  minute  details,  especially 
in  connection  with  real  property.  They  even  regulate  the  de- 
cision of  the  Sheri,  or  courts  which  are  supposed  to  expound  the 
sacred  law  of  the  Koran,  and  where  cases  relating  to  real  property 
are  tried ;  and  if  any  deviation  from  them  should  be  attempted, 
appeal  can  be  made,  and  would  meet  with  attention.  With  regard 
to  real  property,  we  know  liow  in  England  the  most  complicated 
cases  frequently  arise,  and  we  have  our  Coiirt  of  Equity  to  decide 
that  which  cannot  be  proved  by  law.  The  Sheri  of  Turkey,  in 
any  case  which  cannot  be  decided  by  the  law  of  the  country,  will 
settle  the  question  by  reference  to  the  Koran. 

We  may  say  that  the  administration  of  justice  in  Turkey  is  di- 
vided into  two  parts — that  of  the  Sheri,  w'herein  all  the  judges  are 
Mussulmans,  and  that  of  the  Nizdmiyeli,  composed  of  both 
Christians  and  Mussulmans. 

The  head  of  all  the  Courts  of  the  Sheri  is  the  Sheik-ul-Islam, 
who  sanctions  all  their  judgments. 

The  judicatory  of  the  Sheri  is  composed  of  a  High  Court  of  Ap- 
peal (Arz-odaci),  divided  into  two  chambers  (Soudour),  one  for 
Turkey  in  Europe,  and  one  for  Asia.  At  the  head  of  each  is  a 
Cdzi-aslcer,  literally  military  judge.  This  is  an  ancient  title  es- 
tablished by  Sultan  Murad  I.,  a.d.  1361,  when  the  civil  affairs  of 
the  army  Avere  brought  under  the  cognizance  of  the  holder  of  the 
title.  The  Cazi-asker  is  assisted  by  fourteen  honorary  chief  jus- 
tices. In  the  Hierarchy  of  the  Ulema  the  Mollahs  rank  next  to 
the  Cdzi-asker,  and  after  them  the  Cadis. 

*  "  Legislation  Ottoman  ou  Recueil  des  lois  reglements  ordonnances 
traites,  capitulations  et  autres  documents  officiels  de  1'  Empire  Ottoman  par 
Aristarchi  Bey  (Gregoire).  1.  Droit  Civil  General.  3.  Droit  Public  Inte 
rieur.     3.  Droit  Administratif.     4.  Droit  Internationale." 


446  TUREE  Y  IX  E  UROPE. 

The  first  in  rauk  are  the  Mollulis  of  Constantinople,  nine  in  num- 
ber, and  who  sit  in  the  Court  Sheri,  at  the  capital,  for  a  year,  be- 
ing taken  in  turn  from  the  body  of  the  Mollahs.  At  its  head  is 
the  Moll  ah  of  Stambonl. 

The  second  in  rank  is  the  Mevlevizet,  which  numbers  fifty-seven 
titularies.  The  Mollah,  when  on  duty,  serves  for  only  a  year,  and 
then  returns  to  the  roll. 

In  each  Vildiet  there  is  a  Court  Sheri  presided  over  by  a  Mol- 
lah. Appointments  to  the  Courts  of  Sheri  are  made  by  the  Sul- 
tan at  the  presentation  of  the  Sheik-ul-Islam.  There  is  a  general 
term  for  the  heads  of  these  district  courts — viz.,  Naihs.  It  is  the 
duty  of  the  Naib  to  examine  and  revise  all  the  sentences  passed  by 
the  Sheri  ;  he  also  presides  at  the  Divmi-temyzi  (Court  of  Appeal) 
attached  to  each  Vilaiet,  which  is  divided  into  two  sections — the 
one  civil  and  the  other  criminal,  and  to  which  all  appeals  are  sent 
from  all  the  courts  of  the  Livas  and  Cazas.  The  Naib  is  an  inter- 
mediary between  the  ancient  law  and  the  new.  He  has,  in  fact, 
to  so  interpret  the  Koran  that  it  will  agree  with  the  laws  Avhich 
have  been  founded  on  the  Codes  Napoleon  ;  the  latter  is  for  all 
practicable  purposes  the  laiv,  and  the  Sheri  sanctions  it,  and  if  it 
did  not,  appeals  could  be  made.  The  members  of  the  Divan- 
temyzi  are  composed  of  all  classes  of  subjects,  whether  Mussulmans 
or  not,  taken  from  the  inferior  courts  at  the  rate  of  three  for  the 
Daavi,  four  for  the  Temyz-i-houkouk,  and  six  for  the  Divan-i- 
temyz.  These  courts  will  presently  be  described.  The  law  di- 
rects that  the  members  of  this  court  shall  be  elected  by  the  in- 
habitants, but  it  is  evaded,  and  the  election  practically  lies  in  the 
hands  of  the  Vali.  Steps  were  taken  in  December,  1875,  to  rem- 
edy this,  with  what  result  remains  to  be  seen.  Each  Liva  and 
Caza  has  also  a  Court  Sheri,  of  which  the  Naibs  are  Cadis  ap- 
pointed by  the  Sultan  on  the  nomination  of  the  Sheik-ul-Islam. 
The  practice  of  these  courts  is  simple  and  expeditious,  and  their 
decisions  are  usually  just,  but  unfortunately  in  many  instances  the 
subtle  influence  of  backshish  forms  a  powerful  counsel.  The  par- 
ties concerned  in  the  case  take  care  to  provide  themselves  with  a 
fetva  of  the  Mufti  or  counsel's  opinion,  and  then  without  any  other 
assistance  they  appear  before  the  Court  and  state  their  own  case, 
and  prove  it  by  any  documents  they  may  possess,  or  by  any  wit- 
nesses they  can  produce.  The  AyaJc-naih,  a  sort  of  pleader,  then 
makes  a  brief  resume  of  the  whole  case,  and  the  judge  pronounces 


APPENDIX  D.  447 

sentence  ildm  (which  is  inscribed  at  the  bottom  of  the  arz-i-hel  or 
petition),  and  legalizes  it  by  his  signature.  The  administrative 
authority  is  charged  with  carrying  out  the  sentence. 

It  is  a  popular  error  to  sujopose  that  the  Courts  Sheri  are  the 
only  laws  in  Turkey,  that  is,  that  all  cases  are  settled  by  the  law 
of  the  Koran  ;  it  would  be  just  as  reasonable  to  say  that  our  Courts 
of  Equity  form  the  only  law  in  England.  It  may  be  fairly  put  in 
this  way — that  the  Courts  Sheri  are  guided  by  the  law  which  is 
founded  on  the  Codes  Napoleon,  and  that  in  all  cases  of  difficulty 
they  apply  for  assistance  to  the  lav/  of  the  Koran. 

"We  have  now  to  consider  the  Mekhemeli-i-nizdiniyeh,  or  legal 
tribunals,  the  members  of  which  comprise  both  Mussulmans  and 
Christians,  and  whose  duty  it  is  to  examine  and  try  all  cases  be- 
tween the  two  religious  classes  of  Ottoman  subjects,  and  also 
between  Mussulmans  alone.  They  are  also  Criminal  Courts.  The 
members  of  these  Courts  are  taken  like  those  of  the  Divan-temyzi, 
from  all  classes  who  may  be  properly  qualified,  and  are  elected  by 
the  inhabitants  as  directed  in  the  new  regulations  for  the  admin- 
istration of  the  Vilaiets,  published  in  March,  1876.  In  other  re- 
spects these  Courts  are  formed  on  the  European  model,  and  one 
is  attached  to  each  Vilaiet,  Liva,  and  Caza.  Below  the  latter 
Court  come  the  demogeronties  of  the  villages,  which  may  be  com- 
pared to  our  own  justices  of  the  peace. 

Each  higher  Court  forms  a  Court  of  Appeals  from  the  one  be- 
low it.  That  of  the  Vildiet,  the  Divan-i-temyzi,  I  have  already 
described  ;  it  gives  judgment  on  cases  of  capital  punishment, 
penal  servitude,  and  perpetual  exile  ;  but  all  cases  of  capital  pun- 
ishment have  to  be  sanctioned  by  the  High  Court  of  Constantino- 
ple, and  finally  by  the  Sultan. 

The  Court  which  sits  at  the  head-quarters  of  the  Livd  is  called 
Temyz-i-liouJcouh-Medjlisseri.  It  is  charged  with  civil  cases 
where  the  amount  in  debate  does  not  exceed  in  value  5,000  pias- 
ters, or  where  terms  of  imprisonment  not  exceeding  three  months 
can  be  inflicted,  or  a  fine  of  500  piasters. 

The  Court  at  the  head-quarters  of  the  Gaza  is  called  Dadvi- 
Medjlisseri,  which  judges  on  civil  actions  not  exceeding  1,000 
piasters,  and  passes  sentences  of  imprisonment  not  exceeding  one 
week,  or  fines  not  exceeding  100  piasters. 

This  concludes  all  the  Local  Courts,  with  the  exception  of  the 
Tribunals  of  Commerce,  established  in  the  sea-port  towns,  and  of 


448  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

whicli  there  are  forty-nine  in  Turkey  in  Europe.  They  were  in- 
stituted in  1847,  but  many  reforms  have  been  made  in  them  since 
that  date.  They  are  composed  of  two  chambers — one  considers 
all  cases  connected  with  commerce  on  land,  the  other  is  maritime. 
Appeals  are  carried  to  the  High  Courts  of  the  Vilaiets,  and  finally 
to  the  Supreme  Court  of  Justice  at  Constantinople,  or  the  Divan- 
i-ahhidm-i-adliyeh,  instituted  in  1868.  This  Court  sits  in  appeal 
from  all  other  courts  in  the  country,  and  is  divided  into  two  sec- 
tions. The  first  Mekhemeh-i-temyzi,  or  Court  of  Cassation,  is 
again  divided  into  two  sections — the  one  civil,  and  the  other  crim- 
inal. The  second  section  of  the  Supreme  Court  is  called  Mehhe- 
m^li-i-nizameyeh,  or  High  Court  of  Appeal,  and  passes  a  final 
sentence  on  civil  and  criminal  cases,  excepting  sentence  of  death, 
upon  which  further  appeal  can  be  made  to  the  Sultan.  It  is 
divided  into  three  chambers — civil,  criminal,  and  commercial. 

This  Court  completes  all  the  judicial  tribunals  of  the  Empire. 
It  may  be  seen  that,  like  all  other  departments,  the  organization 
is  excellent,  but  it  is  indifferently  administered.  Nevertheless, 
the  accounts  of  maladministration  of  justice,  which  it  is  too  com- 
mon to  blaze  about,  are  greatly  exaggerated.  Abuses  exist,  and 
whenever  they  can  be  discovered  they  are  made  the  most  of  by  the 
enemies  of  the  country.  In  the  execution  of  justice  much  dejiends 
upon  the  character  of  the  Vali,  or  of  the  head  of  any  of  the  infe- 
rior districts.  It  consequently  happens  that  in  one  part  of  the 
country  you  may  find  the  laws  honestly  carried  out,  while  in  an- 
other they  are  evaded  by  bribery.  Consul  Palgrave,  in  writing  from 
Trebizond  in  1867,  says  :  "  The  Medjliss  is  a  tribunal  sufficiently 
impartial  from  its  very  organization  ;  no  legal  difference  is  made 
between  the  Turk  and  Christian  ;  and  the  witness  of  either  is 
equally  admitted  in  every  case.  Indeed,  whatever  occasional  in- 
justices may  here  occur  weigh  for  the  most  part  heavier  on  a  Turk 
than  on  a  Christian  ;  because  the  former  has  in  matter  of  fact  no 
ulterior  appeal,  while  the  latter  habitually  interj)oses  the  authority 
of  some  Consulate,  especially  the  Greek  or  the  Eussiaft." 

There  are  auxiliary  institutions  connected  with  the  mercantile 
regulations  for  trade  which,  although  of  a  private  character,  are 
nevertheless  recognized  by  the  Government,  and  are  made  use  of 
by  it  for  the  purposes  of  information  and  for  transmitting  instruc- 
tions. 

These  are  the  guilds  called  '*  Esnafs."     The  masters  of  those 


APPENDIX  D.  449 

professions  or  tr.ades  which  bear  analogy  to  each  other  form  an 
assembly  called  the  Esnaf.  These  communities  are  regularly  or- 
ganized. They  have  each  a  recognized  chief  or  president,  as  he  is 
called,  who  is  elected  by  the  majority  of  the  members. 

They  have  their  statutes  and  hold  meetings. 

The  members  are  bound  by  reciprocal  engagements  to  agree  to 
all  matters  having  reference  to  current  lorices  or  opposition  there- 
to. The  admission  of  a  workman  or  artizan  to  an  Esnaf  is  regu- 
lated by  its  president,  who  either  decides  on  his  own  responsibil- 
ity at  once,  or  submits  the  case  at  the  general  meeting  of  its 
members.  It  is  also  part  of  the  duty  of  the  president  to  see  that 
each  member  of  his  Esnaf  should  comply  with  the  law,  as  also  with 
the  special  rules  of  the  corporation.  The  president  has  power  to 
fine,  in  accordance  with  these  rules,  those  who  disobey  them. 

He  is  intrusted  with  the  seal  of  office  of  the  association,  and  the 
local  authorities  look  to  him  as  the  exponent  on  all  matters  con- 
nected with  the  Esnaf  of  which  he  is  the  chief  member.  The 
claims  of  admission  of  any  new  member  are  inquired  into  at  a 
meeting  convened  for  the  purpose. 

If  the  applicant  is  admitted,  his  entrance  fee  is  inscribed  in  a 
book,  which  sum,  together  with  any  fines  that  may  have  been  im- 
posed, goes  toward  the  relief  of  distressed  workmen  of  the  craft, 
or  is  applied  to  the  use  of  orphan  children. 

In  principle,  every  Esnaf  enjoys  a  monopoly  of  its  trade,  as  no 
one  is  allowed  to  form  part  of  it  witliout  the  consent  or  conditions 
already  mentioned.  The  Mussulman  population  when  joined  to 
the  Christian,  as  frequently  occurs,  are  far  from  rendering  willing 
obedience  to  the  by-laws  which  govern  these  corporations,  and 
difliculties  arise  in  consequence.  Sixty-nine  of  these  corporations 
exist  in  the  Bazaar  of  Monastir — namely,  forty-one  Christian, 
nineteen  Mussulman,  and  nine  Jewish,  This  division  of  creeds  in 
no  way  interferes  with  the  working  of  the  system. 

The  Jews  foi-m  a  separate  section,  and  do  not  admit  a  member 
of  a  different  belief  ;  all  the  others  are  mixed  and  are  designated 
Mussulman,  Christian,  etc.,  according  to  the  majority  in  them,  as 
the  majority  of  course  elect  a  president  of  their  own  ci'eed.  Mer- 
chants properly  so  called  do  not  form  part  of  the  Esnaf.*  I  believe 
the  Esnaf  is  an  ancient  organization,  and  it  seems  somewhat  sim- 

*  Report  from  Consul  Blunt. 

29 


450  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

ilar  to  that  whicli  must  have  existed  on  the  formation  of  our  great 
city  guilds  or  companies. 

There  is  a  special  organization  for  Constantinople  into  a  sepa- 
rate Vilaiet,  placed  under  the  immediate  authority  of  the  Minister 
of  Police.  The  jurisdiction  of  the  Zabtiyeli  Ndziri,  as  it  is  called, 
comprises  Stamboul  and  the  quarters  of  Eyoub,  Kassim  Pasha, 
Pera  and  Galata,  and  all  the  suburbs  from  Silivria  on  the  Sea  of 
Marmora  to  the  Black  Sea  on  the  European  side,  and  from  Ghili 
on  the  Black  Sea  to  the  end  of  the  Gulf  of  Nicomedia  on  the 
Asiatic  side.  The  number  of  inhabitants  has  been  estimated  at 
1,200,000,  but  it  is  doubtful  whether  that  is  even  approximately 
accurate.  The  Vildiet  is  divided  into  four  Mutecarrifliks  or 
LivAs,  Stamboul,  Pera,  Scutari,  and  Buyuk-Tchekmedjeh,  which 
comprise  eight  Caimacdmliks  or  Cazas,  and  five  Mudirliks  or 
Nahiehs,  as  follows : 

COKSTAKTINOPLE. 

Mut6carrlflik9.  Catmacamliks.  Mudirliks. 

Fatih-Sultan-Mehemet. 

Eyoub. 

Cartal. 

lies  des  Princes. 


Stamboul - 


Pera. 


Galata. 
Yeni  Keui. 


Scutari Beicos i  <^"ibeyeh. 

1  Ghili. 

r  Kutchuk. 

Buyuk-Tchekmedjeh.     Tchataldjeh \  ''     ' 

[  Derkos. 

The  Minister  of  Police  fills  the  office  of  Vali,  and  is  assisted  with 
similar  officers  to  those  in  a  Vildiet.  The  Municipal  Government 
of  Constantinople  forms  a  prefecttire,  divided  into  fourteen  circles: 
1.  St.  Sophia ;  3.  Ak  Serai ;  3.  Fatih-Sultan-Mehemet  ;  4.  Eyoub  ; 
5.  Kassim  Pasha ;  6.  Pera  and  Galata  ;  7.  Bechik-Tach  ;  8.  Emir- 
ghian  ;  9.  Buyukdereh  ;  10.  Beycos  ;  11.  Beylerbey ;  13.  Scutari ; 
13.  Cadi  Keui ;  14.  Princes  Islands. 

The  three  first  are  comprised  in  the  enciente  of  Stamboul. 


APPENDIX  D. 


451 


The  administration  of  each  municipal  circle  is  carried  out  hy  a 
municipal  council  elected  by  the  people,  except  the  president,  who 
is  appointed  by  Government.  Up  to  the  end  of  187G  only  one, 
the  sixth,  of  these  circles  had  been  completely  organized,  the  re- 
mainder are  in  process  of  formation.  They  are  all  to  be  under 
the  surveillance  of  the  Prefect  of  Constantinople,  who  is  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Privy  Council.  He  is  assisted  by  two  Councils — the 
Council  of  the  Prefect,  consisting  of  six  members  appointed  by 
the  State,  and  a  Council  General,  composed  of  the  fourteen  presi- 
dents of  the  Circles — and  three  members  from  each  of  their 
Municijjal  Councils  appointed  by  their  colleagues.  The  Council 
General  meets  twice  a  year,  and  is  convoked  by  the  Prefect,  and 
the  duration  of  each  session  does  not  exceed  one  month. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  Vilaiets,  together  with  their 
Livds : — 


Turkey  iisr  Europe. 


10  VilaTcts,  or  General  Governments. 

Constantinople. 


1.  Edirneh  (Adrianople) . 


2.  Touna  (Danube). 


3.  Bosna  (Bosnia) , 


44  Livas,  or  MntgcarriflikB. 

Edirneh. 

Tekfour  Daghi  (Rhodosto). 

Gueboli  (Gallipoli). 

Fillibeh  (Philippopoli). 

Islimiyeh. 

RutschuJc. 

Varna. 

Widdin. 

Toultcha. 

Tirnova. 

Sofia. 

Nich. 

Bosna  Serai. 

Zvornik. 

Banialouka. 

Travnik. 

Behkeh. 

Yeni- Bazaar. 


4.  Ersek  (Herzegovina) i  ^^ostar. 

^  ^  (  Gatchka  (Gatzko). 


452 


TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 


5.  Selanik  (Salonica). 


6.  Yania  (Yanina) , 


7.  Monastir. 


Ochkoudra  or  Scodra  (Scu- 
tari)   


9.  Djezair  (Islands) , 


10.  Ghirit  (Candia) 


SelaniTc. 
Sironz  (Seres). 
Drama. 

Yania. 

Tirhala. 

Erkri  (Okhri). 

Prevesa. 

Berat. 

Monastir. 

Perzerim  (Prizrend). 

Uscub  (Scopia). 

Dobra. 

Scodra. 

Rodos  (Ehodes). 
Midilli  (Mytillene) 
Sakyz  (Chios). 
Istankeui  (Cos). 
Kybrys  (Cyprus). 

Hania  (Cania). 
Eismo. 

Candiyeb  (Candia). 
Sultauiyeb  (Spakia). 
*-  Lachid. 


We  have  now  to  consider  how  the  Vilaiets  communicate  with 
their  central  head-quarters  at  Constantinople,  and  thus  reach  the 
supreme  head  of  the  State,  the  Sultan. 

"We  have  seen  how  the  ancient  order  of  oflBcials  termed  outer 
and  inner  Aghas  still  exist,  and  how  the  latter,  or  the  Maheindji, 
are  connected  with  the  serai  or  palace. 

The  mabein  is  that  part  of  the  palace  inhabited  by  the  harem, 
and  which  contains  not  only  the  wives  but  the  female  relations  of 
the  Sultan,  together  with  their  attendants. 

This  is  the  case  with  all  harems,  and  often  gives  a  stranger  a 
very  erroneous  impression  of  the  number  of  wives  belonging  to  a 
Turk.  He  sees,  perhaps,  twenty  or  more  women,  and  is  told  that 
they  form  the  harem  of  some  Bey  or  Pasha,  and  he  immediately 
sets  them  all  down  as  the  wives  of  the  unfortunate  Turk,  while 


APPENDIX  D.  453 

in  point  of  fact  there  may  be  only  one  wife,  and  the  remainder 
are  aunts,  mothers,  sisters,  etc. 

The  Sultan's  harem  is  considered  a  permanent  state  institution, 
and  all  children  born  to  him,  whether  offspring  of  free  women  or 
slaves,  are  legitimate.  The  female  children  are  called  Imperial 
Princesses,  but  the  title  does  not  descend  to  their  offspring.  The 
male  children,  until  called  to  the  throne,  must  either  remain  un- 
married or  abdicate  their  rank.  Several  of  the  Sultan's  favorites 
are  called  Kadyn,  or  ladies  of  the  palace ;  the  remainder  are 
termed  Odalik,  and  remain  under  them  as  servants.  An  aged 
lady  is  selected  as  Superintendent  of  the  Palace,  under  the  title  of 
Hasnadar-Kadyn,  and  she  communicates  with  the  outer  world 
through  the  guard  of  eunuchs.  * 

To  the  outer  Aghas  belong  the  First  Aide-de-camp,  or  Chief  of 
the  Saltan's  military  staff,  which  is  composed  of  five  aide-de- 
camps and  thirty  officers  from  the  rank  of  General  of  Brigade  to 
that  of  Captain,  the  first  Imam,  or  Grand  Almoner,  the  Chief  Sur- 
geon, the  First  Secretary,  and  the  Master  of  the  Horse. 

The  principal  offices  of  the  Mabeindji  are  filled  by  eunuchs,  who 
carry  the  title  of  Aghas.  They  occupy  a  very  important  place  in 
the  State  in  consequence  of  the  great  influence  they  sometimes 
possess  as  intermediaries  between  the  Valideh  Sultana  or  other 
members  of  the  harem,  and  the  officers  who  hold  the  reins  of  gov- 
ernment. 

In  the  first  rank  comes  the  chief  of  the  Black  Eunuchs,  or 
Kislar  Aghaci.  His  official  title  is  Darus  Sead-t-aghaci.  He  ranks 
as  a  muchir,  or  field-marshal,  and  often  exercises  as  much  influ- 
ence as  the  Grand  Vizier.  After  him  comes  the  Kliasnadar, 
Treasurer,  and  the  8cr  moucdhib,  or  Chief  of  the  Pages  ;  the  First 
Chamberlain,  or  Grand  Master  of  the  Court,  etc.,  etc. 

The  Sultan  governs  his  empire  through  two  channels — (1.)  The 
Grand  Vizier  ;  {2.)  The  Sheik-ul-Islam,  or  Mufti.  The  Grand 
Vizier  is  the  mouthpiece  of  the  Sultan,  and  executes  his  will.  He 
presides,  in  the  absence  of  the  Sultan,  at  the  Privy  Council, 
nominates  to  most  of  the  appointments,  commands  the  army, 
either  in  person  or  by  delegates.  He  is,  in  fact,  the  chief  executive 
power,  but  he  only  exercises  that  power  in  the  name  of  tlie  Sultan. 
His  powers  are  conferred  upon  him  by  a  hatt,  which  the  Sultan 
addresses  to  him  on  raising  him  to  the  appointment.  Anybody 
Statesman's  Year  Book,  1877. 


454  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

may  be  selected  by  the  Sultan  to  be  Grand  Vizier,  no  matter  what 
his  qualifications  may  be. 

The  SheiTc-ul-Isldni  does  not  rank  inferior  to  the  Grand  Vizier, 
but  he  acts  in  a  different  sphere.  As  the  latter  is  the  voice  of  the 
Sultan,  the  former  may  be  called  his  judgment.  The  Sheik-ul- 
Islam  is  also  called  the  Grand  Mufti ;  but  the  latter  word  is  also 
used  to  designate  other  remarkable  personages. 

His  position  is  altogether  unique,  and  somewhat  difficult  to 
describe.  He  is  generally  supposed  to  belong  to  the  si:)iritual 
order  ;  but  such  is  not  the  case,  and  he  might  more  justly  be  de- 
signated as  the  head  of  the  legislature  ;  but  since  the  law  is  con- 
nected with  the  Koran,  and  the  Sheik-ul-Islam  is  the  interpreter 
of  the  Koran,  it  attaches  to  him  a  spiritual  character.  There  is 
no  spiritual  head  besides  himself,  yet  he  is  not  an  ecclesiastical 
functionary.  He  may  be  designated  as  the  counsel  of  the  Sultan, 
and  his  fetva,  or  stated  legal  opinion  as  derived  from  the  Koran, 
has  to  be  obtained  to  sanction  any  State  ordonnance.  He  is  the 
head  and  referee  of  all  law  courts.  The  office  was  established  by 
Sultan  Mohammed  II.,  in  the  year  1453.  He  is  removable  at  the 
will  of  the  Sultan,  and  if  his  fetvas  are  not  always  in  accordance 
with  the  Sultan's  wishes  a  new  ajipointment  is  made,  so  that  the 
Sultan  can  direct  the  law.     He  is,  in  fact,  despotic. 

But  this  despotism  is  only  nominal,  and,  as  we  have  seen  in  the 
case  of  Sultan  Abdul  Aziz,  when  the  despotic  power  is  greatly 
abused  the  Councils  take  the  law  into  their  own  hands  ;  but  before 
misgovernment  arrives  at  such  a  pass  a  dishonest,  weak,  or  cruel 
Sultan  brings  his  country  to  the  verge  of  ruin. 

The  Sheik-ul-Islam  is  chief  of  the  Ulema,  or  sacred  and  legisla- 
tive order,  and,  like  the  Grand  Vizier,  has  the  title  of  Highness, 
and  each  receives  a  salary  of  about  £11,000  per  annum. 

They  form,  together  with  the  ministers  with  portfolio  and  some 
high  dignitaries  having  the  rank  of  minister,  the  Privy  Council, 
or  Medjliss-i-hlidss. 

It  is  composed  of  the  following  twenty-two  members  : — 

The  Seraskier,  or  Minister  of  War. 

The  Minister  of  Marine,  or  Capitan  Pasha. 

The  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs  (Ancient  Eeis-Effendi). 

The  Minister  of  Justice. 

The  Minister  of  Public  Instruction. 

The  Minister  of  Finance. 


APPENDIX  D.  455 

The  Minister  of  Commerce. 

The  Minister  of  Public  Works. 

The  Minister  of  Police. 

The  Minister  of  Vacoufs. 

The  Mustechilr  (Counsel)  of  the  Grand  Vizier,  and  who  per- 
forms the  functions  of  a  Minister  of  the  Interior. 

The  President  and  Vice-President  of  the  Council  of  State. 

A  Member  of  the  same  Council. 

Three  other  Members  of  the  Superior  Councils. 

The  Director-General  of  Indirect  Contributions. 

The  Director-General  of  Archives. 

The  Prefect  of  the  Town  of  Constantinople. 

The  name  given  to  the  Privy  Council  is  the  Divan,  which  is, 
properly  speaking,  derived  from  the  Persian  word  Div  (demon), 
and  it  is  said  that  the  King  of  Persia,  on  passing  before  his  Coun- 
cil, said  to  a  friend,  "1  nan  divan  end"  (Those  are  demons),  and 
since  that  day  the  plural  of  div,  which  is  divan,  has  attached  to 
councils.  * 

The  Sublime  Porte  is  supposed  to  be  wherever  the  Grand  Vizier 
is  found,  and  the  Divan  is  the  Council  of  the  Sublime  Porte,  and 
meets  generally  every  week  under  the  presidency  of  the  Sultan, 
and  deliberates  on  all  that  concerns  the  public  interests.  Under 
circumstances  of  exceptional  gravity,  the  Privy  Council  is  re- 
placed by  an  extraordinary  divan  composed  of  all  the  ministers, 
of  the  muchirs  of  the  civil  and  military  order,  of  the  chiefs  of 
the  grand  administrations,  of  the  principal  ulemas,  of  the  pro- 
fessors of  the  great  mosques,  etc.,  etc 

In  addition  to  the  Divan  there  are  the  Councils  of  the  Empire, 
which  consist  of  the  Council  for  the  Execution  of  Eeform,  and 
the  Council  of  State. 

The  first,  or  IfedUjj-i-ali-idJradf,  is,  as  its  name  implies,  de- 
signed to  watch  over  the  general  administration,  and  to  see  that 
the  reforms  promulgated  in  the  Hatt-i-cherifs,  Iradehs,  etc.,  are 
carried  out.  The  Grand  Vizier  is  President,  and  the  Ministers  sit 
ex  officio.  There  are  fifteen  other  members,  of  which  six  are 
Christians. 

The  Council  of  State  was  instituted  in  1868,  and  is  organized 
on  the  model  of  the  French  Council  of  State,  but  many  changes 

*  Von  Hammer. 


456  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

have  been  made  in  its  divisions.  In  1873  it  had  four  sections — 
administrative,  legislative,  litigation,  and  public  works ;  but  in 
1875  the  last  was  delegated  to  a  council  of  public  works. 

It  is  presided  over  by  a  minister,  and  at  the  head  of  each  section 
there  is  a  "  President  of  Section."  There  are  sixteen  counselors, 
among  whom  three  are  representatives  of  the  non-Mussulman 
community — a  Greek,  an  Armenian,  and  a  Jew.  There  are  also  a 
secretary,  five  assessors  {muavin),  and  eight  auditors  {muldzim). 

The  Council  of  State  has  the  germs  of  a  representative  council 
of  the  general  subjects  of  the  Porte,  and  will  no  doubt  be  built 
upon  as  reforms  take  place. 

In  addition  to  the  great  Councils  of  the  State,  there  are  eleven 
Special  Councils  of  the  Ministers  of  the  various  branches  of  ad- 
ministrations, among  which  may  be  mentioned  that  of  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  Post  and  Telegraphs,  and  the  Sanitary  Council, 
which  is  the  head  of  a  sanitary  service  whose  duty  it  is  to  indicate 
what  may  be  necessary  for  the  public  health  in  any  part  of  the 
Empire — no  easy  matter  under  the  circumstances  ! 

All  these  subordinate  Councils  sift  the  State  business  in  detail, 
and  concentrate  it  for  the  consideration  of  the  State  Council. 
There  are  also  a  number  of  bureaucratic  appointments  called  the 
Officers  of  the  State,  and  of  which  the  GalemiyeJi  demands  the 
first  consideration. 

It  comprises  five  ranks  of  functionaries,  of  which  the  highest 
is  assimilated  to  the  military  profession  (the  ancient  foundation  of 
the  governors  of  Turkey),  and  carries  with  it  the  rank  of  Ferik, 
or  General  of  Division.  The  first  and  second  ranks  are  each  com- 
posed of  two  classes,  and  in  the  former  may  be  included  the 
Mustechdrs,  or  Counsellors.  They  are,  as  it  were,  adjutants  of  the 
principal  ministers.  The  Mustechar  of  the  Grand  Vizier  fulfills 
the  functions  of  Minister  of  the  Interior,  an  arrangement  which 
does  not  give  satisfaction,  and  it  is  proposed  to  institute  a  minister 
for  that  special  purpose.  This  office  was  filled  under  the  ancient 
regime  by  the  Kiaia  Bey.  Then  comes  the  Interpreter  of  the 
Divan,  or  Divan-i-humayoun-terdjumdni ;  the  Vice-Chancellor, 
BeililctcM,  who  is  the  channel  of  communication  with  the  Patri- 
archate, and  exj^edites  the  transmission  of  the  firmans  to  provincial 
governors  relative  to  Uie  police  of  the  Empire ;  the  Director  of  the 
Imperial  Divan,  Amedi-i-divan-i-Jiumayotin ;  the  Keeper  of  the 
Signet,  who  affixes  the  imperial  seal  to  all  firmans  ;  the  Master  of 


APPENDIX  D.  457 

the  Ccromouies,  Teclirifdti-i-humayoun;  the  Director-General  of 
the  Press,  Matboiidt-mudiri ;  the  Controller-General  of  Vacoufs, 
MuhdsseheMj i ;  the  Controller  of  the  Bank,  etc.,  etc.* 

The  Interpreter  of  the  Divan  has  under  his  orders  a  staff  of 
Linguists  {Terdjuman-odaci),  a  very  necessary  accompaniment  to 
Government  in  Turkey.  This  work  used  to  be  performed  by  the 
Phanariots  prior  to  the  Greek  war  of  independence,  in  1821,  when 
it  was  replaced  by  the  Terdjuman-odaci,  and  with  it  the  Greeks 
lost  much  of  the  influence  they  formerly  possessed  in  the  govern- 
ment of  the  country. 

It  is  absolutely  necessary  for  good  government  in  Turkey  that 
the  leading  men  should  be  Linguists,  otherAvise  they  cannot 
fathom  the  intricacies  of  their  complicated  administration  ;  we 
consequently  find  that  some  of  the  most  distinguished  men  in 
Turkish  history  for  the  last  forty  years  have  emanated  from  the 
Terdjuman-odaci.  Aali  Pasha,  Fuad  Pasha,  Ahmed- Vefik  Effendi, 
Emin-Muklis  Pasha,  Noureddin  Bey,  Namik  Pasha,  Savfet 
Pasha,  etc. 

This  concludes  the  plan  of  government  and  administration  in 
Turkey,  and  if  it  is  studied  closely  it  will  be  seen  that  it  has  been 
framed  with  the  intention  of  checking  corruption,  especially  in  the 
Vilaiets  ;  but  the  weak  point  in  the  edifice  is  the  power  of  the 
Sultan.  If  he  is  dishonest  he  can,  by  a  wave  of  his  hand,  sweep 
off  the  Grand  Vizier  and  the  Sheik- ul-Isldm,  and  replace  them 
with  dishonest  men,  and  after  that  the  organization  is  complete 
for  ramifying  venality  through  the  State. 

*  Ubicini. 


APPENDIX  E. 

EDUCATION". 

The  education  in  the  public  schools  is  divided  into  three 
stages — 

1.  The  Primary — given  by  the  SiUdn,  or  elementary  schools, 
and  the  Ruclidiyeh  or  primary  schools. 

2.  The  Secondary — which  also  pursue  two  courses  through  the 
Idadiyeh  or  preparatory  schools,  and  the  Sultauiyeh  or  Lyceums. 

3.  The  Superior  Institutions — representing  the  University  and 
special  superior  schools  or  Aliyeh. 

We  will  now  examine  these  lay  schools  in  detail. 

The  Sihidn  or  Primary ^Scliools. 

These  are  the  Elementary  schools  which  have  taken  the  place  of 
the  old  Mektehs.  Education  is  gratuitous,  and  for  the  Mussulman 
population  compulsory  for  all  children  of  both  sexes — for  boys, 
from  the  age  of  six  to  eleven  years  ;  and  for  girls,  from  six  to  ten 
years  of  age.  Each  quarter,  or  each  village,  must  possess  at  least 
one  of  these  schools. 

At  the  end  of  1864  there  existed  in  Turkey  15,071  Primary 
schools)  289  in  Constantinople,  the  remainder  in  the  Provinces), 
which  gave  instruction  to  660,000  children  of  both  sexes  ;  of  this 
number  12,509  with  524,771  students  were  Mussulman,  and  2,562 
with  135,229  students  were  non-Mussulman  schools. 

In  1876  the  Salndmeh  had  at  Constantinople  alone  470  schools, 
of  which  280  were  Mussulman,  and  190  non-Mussulman  ;  the  latter 
were  divided  as  follows  : — Greek  77,  Armenian  48,  Armenian 
Catholics  8,  Bulgarian  4,  Jews  47,  Protestants  5,  Servian  1. 

I^he  Ruclidiyeh  is  also  gratuitous,  but  not  compulsory.  Accord- 
ing to  Law,  each  group  of  500  houses  must  have  a  Euchdiyeh 
school — Mussulman,  if  the  population  is  of  that  faith  ;  Christian, 
if  it  is  Christian.  In  mixed  populations  there  are  to  be  two 
schools,  one  ]\Iussulman,  and  one  Christian.   The  teaching,  which 

458 


APPENDIX  E.  459 

extends  over  four  years,  comprises,  for  tlie  boys — Turkish  gram- 
mar, Arabic  and  Persian,  arithmetic,  elementary  geometry,  history, 
geography,  drawing,  and  the  language  of  one  of  the  non-Mussul- 
man communities  of  the  locality  ;  for  the  girls — religious  instruc- 
tion, Turkish  grammar,  the  elements  of  Arabic  and  Persian 
grammar,  literature,  history,  geography,  arithmetic,  domestic 
economy,  needlework,  drawing,  and  the  rudiments  of  music. 
This  is  excellent  in  theory,  but  as  yet  the  practice  has  been  imper- 
fect ;  there  has,  however,  of  late  years  been  a  marked  improve- 
ment both  in  the  teaching  and  in  the  number  of  the  Euchdiyehs, 
as  may  be  seen  from  the  following  list : — 

Schools.  Scholars. 

1857 39  3,371 

1860 53  3,920 

1868 87  11,894 

1874 386  19,356 

Secondary  ScJiooIs. 

1st.  The  Idddiyeh.  These  contain  both  Mussulman  and  non- 
Mussulman  scholars,  and  receive  students  who  have  attended  all 
the  classes  of  the  Euchdiyeh,  and  have  passed  a  qualified  examina- 
tion, which  takes  place  during  the  month  of  June.  The  course 
of  instruction  extends  over  three  years,  and  comprises  Ottoman, 
literature  and  composition,  the  French  language  (compulsory), 
rhetoric,  the  elements  of  political  economy,  geography,  universal 
history,  arithmetic  and  algebra,  geometry,  physics,  natural  history, 
and  drawing.  By  law  an  Idddiyeh  has  to  be  established  for  every 
one  thousand  houses. 

The  Lyceums,  or  Sultaniyeh,  are  established  at  the  head-quarters 
of  the  Vilaiets,  and  comprise  two  divisions — one  a  three  years' 
course  in  grammar,  etc.,  and  the  other  a  similar  period  in  sciences, 
etc. ;  but  both  these  and  the  Idadiyeh  are  at  present  in  nubibus 
and  only  exist  on  paper. 

The  only  secondary  schools  which  really  exist  are  the  Bureau- 
cratic School,  established  in  1869  for  scholars  who  are  to  be  em- 
ployed as  copyists  in  the  public  offices.  This  is  an  imjiortant 
branch  of  education  in  consequence  of  the  complicated  character 
of  Turkish  writing,  of  which  there  are  several  kinds — the  jS^csl:i, 
used  for  religious  or  scientific  works  ;  the  Suhis,  for  inscriptions; 


460  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

the  Divdni,  for  official  acts  ;  tlie  Riha,  discursiye  ;  tlie  SiaTcali, 
for  office-work  connected  with  finance,  and  the  Talik,  or  Persian, 
writing.     This  school  had  fifty-nine  scholars  at  the  end  of  1875, 

School  of  Administration,  or  MeMeb-i-Milhiyeli,  instituted  in 
1862  ;  entrance  after  qualified  examination  from  the  Euchdiy^h. 
The  instruction  comprises  sacred  law,  civil  law,  general  history, 
political  economy,  book-keeping,  geography,  the  French  language, 
natural  history,  and  chemistry.  The  course  lasts  for  two  years. 
The  scholars,  if  they  pass  an  examination  on  leaving,  receive  a 
dijoloma,  and  are  appointed  to  vacant  Mudirliks — Governors  of 
JSTakiehs  in  the  Vilaiets.  The  number  of  scholars  in  1875  was  113. 
This  is  an  important  school,  as  we  here  find  a  lay  educational  in- 
stitution educating  Mussulmans  for  appointments  of  Governors, 
or  magistrates,  of  small  districts. 

There  is  another  school,  or  college,  Avhich  occupies  an  important 
position  in  the  educational  institutions  of  the  country,  and  that  is 
the  Mehteb-i-8ultani,  or  Imperial  Lyceum.  It  was  established  in 
1868  under  a  French  staff  of  teachers,  and  upon  a  French  model. 
The  course  of  study  is  eight  years,  three  years  preparatory  and 
five  actually  in  the  college  course.  At  the  end  of  1875  there  were 
428  scholars  of  all  religions  and  nationalities  in  the  Emjiire.  The 
studies  include  all  branches  of  education  given  in  the  French 
language.  The  government  of  the  Lyceum  is  directed  by  a  high 
Ottoman  functionary,  assisted  by  a  council  of  inspection. 

The  superior  branches  of  education  are  comprised  in  the  Im- 
perial University,  and  other  schools  of  a  special  description. 

The  Imperial  University  is  a  new  institution,  and  is  at  present 
only  in  embryo.  It  is  to  have  three  schools — of  letters,  of  civil 
engineering,  and  of  political  economy. 

The  special  schools  are  numerous,  and  include  military  and 
naval  (to  be  afterward  mentioned).  Medieme,  founded  in  1826 
by  Sultan  Mahmoud.  This  college  has  produced  better  results 
than  any  other  in  Turkey.  It  consists  of  two  sections,  the  pre- 
paratory and  the  medical.  In  1874  there  were  887  students  in  the 
first,  and  302  in  the  second.  I  have  met  several  of  the  doctors 
who  have  been  educated  in  this  college,  and  those  who  have  taken 
their  degree  of  late  years  are  well  instructed  in  their  profession, 
as  far  as  it  is  possible  for  a  non-medical  man  to  judge. 


FIN'AN'CE. 

The  Treaties  of  the  29th  April,  1861,  with  Great  Britain  and 
France  mark  a  new  stage  in  tlie  commercial  legislation,  and  form 
the  basis  of  the  present  duties.  It  was  therein  stipulated  that  a 
single  export  duty  of  8  per  cent,  should  be  payable  on  the  export 
of  Turkish  produce,  not  to  be  enhanced  by  any  internal  duties  on 
sale  or  removal,  and  to  be  annually  reduced  by  1  per  cent,  till  it 
should  have  reached  the  minimum  of  1  per  cent.,  at  which  it  was 
to  remain  stationary.  This  minimum  rate  came  into  operation  on 
the  13th  of  March,  1869.  The  new  Treaties  raised  the  import 
duties  on  foreign  produce  from  5  per  cent,  to  8  per  cent.,  which 
charge  was  to  cover  all  internal  charges  or  tolls,  and  reduced  the 
transit  duty  from  3  to  1  per  cent.  Similar  Treaties  were  subse- 
quently concluded  with  Austria,  Belgium,  Denmark,  Italy,  the 
Netherlands,  Prussia,  Eussia,  Sweden,  Spain,  and  the  United 
States.  Separate  tariffs  were  also  framed  by  special  Commissions 
for  the  purpose  of  assessing  specific  rates  of  duty  on  the  imports 
from  and  exports  to  the  above  states,  which  rates  were  to  be 
equivalent  to  the  8  per  cent,  ad  valorem  duty. 

Thus,  the  Turkish  tariff,  though  one  of  the  most  moderate,  has 
become  one  of  the  most  complicated.  Still  more  objectionable  is 
its  inequality.  Under  color  of  an  8  per  cent,  duty  for  all,  the 
specific  rates  have  been  so  manipulated  as  to  favor  some  countries 
at  the  expense  of  others  and  at  the  expense  of  the  Turkish  Treas- 
ury. Thus  cloth  pays  duty  by  value  when  coming  from  Austria, 
and  by  weight  coming  from  the  Zollverein.  As  a  natural  conse- 
quence, coarse  Prussian  cloths  are  sent  through  Austria  and  fine 
Austrian  cloths  through  Prussia,  to  be  shipped  at  Hamburg,  both 
thus  choosing  the  tariff  which  is  most  advantageous  to  them  and 
least  advantageous  to  the  Treasury.  This  can  only  be  remedied 
by  the  adoption  of  a  uniform  tariff  applicable  to  all  countries. 
Considering    the    geographical    position  of    Turkey  and  the 

461 


462  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

quantity  of  merchandise  whicli  passes  tlirougli  her  ports,  the 
Customs  duties  should  yield  a  much  larger  revenue  than  at  pres- 
ent. The  ruinous  system  of  farming  the  revenue,  accompanied 
with  loss  to  the  Treasury  and  demoralization  of  the  mercantile 
community,  has  now,  thanks  to  the  vigor  and  integrity  of  the  pres- 
ent Director-General,  Kiani  Pasha,  been  abolished.  But  frauds 
and  corruptions  are  still  undoubtedly  rife  in  the  lower  branches 
of  the  Department.  This  is  the  principal  difficulty  with  which 
the  Government  has  to  contend.  It  tends  also  to  throw  the  trade 
into  the  hands  of  unscrupulous  merchants,  and  fosters  a  spirit  of 
hostility  between  the  Custom-house  and  the  merchants,  by  which 
both  suffer.  A  simple  and  uniform  tariff  would  promote  the 
interests  of  both,  and  would  discourage  fraud. 

Another  great  desideratum  is  a  good  system  of  warehousing  in 
bond.  Of  this  Turkey  is  at  present  destitute,  so  that  merchants 
are  obliged  to  import  from  hand  to  mouth.  A  good  bonding 
system  would  encourage  importation,  and  would  materially  aid  in 
the  just  collection  of  the  duty.  The  erection  of  docks  and  bonded 
warehouses  would  be  readily  accomplished  by  private  enterprise, 
and  would  supjily  a  keenly-felt  want. 

Statistics  of  trade  for  the  whole  Empire  are  absolutely  deficient, 
and  those  for  the  principal  sea-ports  are  very  imperfect.  I  am, 
however,  enabled  to  subjoin  an  original  tabular  statement,  show- 
ing the  import  trade  of  Constantinople,  derived  from  an  official 
source. 

SxATEiiEJiTT  of  the  Imports  of  Constantinople  from  Europe  in 
1864,  reduced  to  their  values  in  English  money  at  111  piasters 
per  £  sterling  : 


Articles. 

£  sterling. 

Amber 

26,685 
16,587 
16,083 

Silver  Plate 

Arms  

Butter  and  tallow 

176,625 
16,164 

Cattle  from  Russia 

Jewelry  and  watches 

75,807 

Spirituous  beverages 

109,134 

Candles 

70,740 

Carried  forward 

507,835 

APPENDIX  F. 
Statement  op  Ijtpobts — continued. 


463 


Articles. 


Brought  forward 

Coffee 

Cinnamon  and  cloves 

Caviare 

Cereals  and  flour  from  Russia 

Cochineal 

Ropes  and  tar 

Cottons  and  linens 

Colors 

Table  glass  and  China 

Leather 

Drugs 

Wool,  Manufactures  of 

Silk,  ditto  

Pig  iron 

Wrought  iron,  nails,  machinery 

Thread  of  gold  and  silver,  ornaments 

Furs 

Coal 

Oil  seeds 

Cheese 

Olive  oil 

Printed  books 

Indigo 

Musical  instruments 

Wool  from  Russia 

Furniture,  mirrors,  etc 

Stationery 

Skins,  not  varnished 

Stones,  bricks,  and  slabs 

Boards  and  cabinetmaker's  wood 

Pepper  and  spices 

Rice 

Sulphur 

Sugar 

Articles  of  food,  sundry 

Cigars  and  tobacco 

Tea 

Oil-cloth 

Window-glass  and  bottles 

Zinc,  copper,  tinned  plates,  and  lead. . 
Miscellaneous 

Total 


£  sterling. 


507,825 

178,623 

6,870 

19,296 

307,026 
19,359 
15,759 
2,679,402 
54,990 
91,134 

132,042 
73,629 

762,921 

353,475 
47,604 

105,228 
41,034 
17,334 

200,025 

3,099 

10,944 

33,570 

7,014 

26,400 

5,823 

11,505 

58,185 

62,676 

3,099 

10,935 

17,424 

10,143 

102,843 
19,5fl3 

331,587 

111,843 

7,029 

55,125 

19,800 

20,664 

158,634 

621,126 

7.325.883 


464 


TURKEY  m  EUROPE. 


In  tlie  above  table  are  uot  incliided  :  1.  Merchandise  passing  to 
Trebizond  and  Persia  in  transit ;  2.  Merchandise  in  transit  to 
Eussia  or  Eoumania,  -which  in  winter  is  often  delayed  for  two  or 
three  months  in  Constantinople  ;  3.  Goods  supplied  to  the  Impe- 
rial palaces,  to  the  army,  the  navy,  foreign  Legations,  churches, 
convents,  aiid  other  benevolent  establishments,  a  liberality  of  the 
Government  which  is,  no  doubt,  often  abused  ;  and  4.  All  the 
smuggling  trade  which  is  known  to  exist,  including  most  of  the 
precious  stones,  and  much  of  the  jewelry,  gold  thread,  silk,  and 
other  fabrics  which  are  imported.  It  is  also  to  be  observed  that 
the  above  values  being  based  on  the  tariffs  of  1861,  are  certainly 
inadequate  as  regards  woven  fabrics  for  the  values  of  1864.  Al- 
lowing for  the  above  circumstances,  and  for  the  known  fact  of  a 
greatly  increased  trade  since  1864,  the  value  of  the  European  im- 
ports may  be  set  down  at  £10,000,000  per  annum  at  least. 

TUEKISH  LOANS. 


Year  of  Issue. 

Nominal  Capital 

1854 

£3,000,000 

1855 

5,000,000 

1858 

5,000,090 

1860 

2,070,000 

1863 

8,000,000 

1863-4 

8,000,000 

1865 

36,363,363 

1865 

6,000,000 

1867 

2,500,000 

1869 

22,222,220 

1871 

5,700,000 

1873 

11,126,200 

1873 

28,000,000 

1874 

40,000,000 

£184,981,783 

Interest. 

Issue  Price 

6 

80 

4 

. . .      103^ 

6 

85 

6 

62i 

6 

68 

6 

66 

5 

...     m 

6 

65i 

6 

63 

6 

60^ 

6 

73 

9 

...     m 

6 

m\ 

5 

43i 

The  first  foreign  loan  of  Turkey,  of  1854,  issued  to  meet  the 
expenses  of  the  Crimean  "War,  was  contracted  with  Messrs.  Dent, 
Palmer  and  Co.,  London,  on  the  security  of  the  Egyptian  Trib- 
ute, with  stipulation  to  be  repaid  by  annual  drawings  in  or  before 
the  year  1889. 

The  second  loan  of  1855,  was  brought  out  under  the  guarantee 
of  England  and  France.  It  is  to  be  paid  off  at  par  by  annual 
drawings,  the  last  of  which  will  be  in  August,  1900,  and  it  is 


APPENDIX  F.  465 

charged  on  the  balance  of  the  Egyptian  Tribute  and  on  the  Cus- 
toms duties  of  S3'ria. 

The  third  loan,  of  1858,  was  contracted  with  Messrs.  Dent, 
Palmer  and  Co.  and  the  Ottoman  Bank  on  the  securities  of  the 
Customs  duties  and  octrois  of  Constantinople,  and  of  the  general 
revenues  of  the  Empire.  It  was  issued  in  two  portions,  £3,000,000 
in  1858,  and  £2,000,000  in  1859,  and  is  to  be  repaid  at  par  by 
annual  drawings  before  the  year  1893. 

The  fourth  loan  of  1860,  contracted  with  M.  Mir5s,  Paris,  on 
the  securities  of  the  Customs  and  other  revenues  of  the  Empire, 
was  intended  to  be  for  £16,000,000,  but  only  £2,070,000  could  be 
issued  at  the.price  of  62^. 

The  fifth  loan  of  1862,  contracted  with  the  Ottoman  Bank  and 
Messrs.  Deveaux,  Paris,  was  secured  on  the  tobacco,  salt,  stamp, 
and  license  duties,  and  the  general  revenues  of  the  Empire. 

The  sixth  loan  of  1863,  contracted  with  the  Ottoman  Bank,  was 
issued  on  the  security  of  the  Imperial  customs  and  tithes. 

The  seventh  loan,  of  186-1,  was  raised  with  the  professed  object 
of  attaining  at  a  conversion  and  unification  of  the  internal  debts 
of  the  Ottoman  Empire.  The  contract  for  issuing  this  loan  was 
made  by  ilr.  Laing,  representing  a  financial  combination  of  the 
General  Credit  Company  of  London,  the  Societe  Generale  of 
Paris,  and  a  number  of  other  banks. 

The  eighth  loan,  of  1865,  contracted  through  the  Ottoman 
Bank,  was  charged  on  the  security  of  the  sheep  tax  of  Roumelia 
and  the  Archipelagoes,  and  the  produce  of  the  mines  of  Tokat. 

The  ninth,  tenth,  and  eleventh  loans,  contracted  through  the 
Societe  Generale,  Paris,  Messrs.  Louis  Cohen  and  Sons,  Paris, 
Messrs.  Dent,  Palmer  and  Co.,  London,  were  placed  on  the  secu- 
rity of  a  variety  of  special  taxes,  imports  and  tithes,  as  well  as  on 
the  general  revenues,  present  and  future  of  Turkey. 

The  twelfth  loan,  issued  in  August,  1872,  through  Messrs.  R. 
Raphael  and  Sons,  London,  was  secured  on  taxes  already  hypoth- 
ecated with  the  special  privilege  for  the  bond-holders  to  exchange 
their  securities  at  the  rate  of  £550  payment  for  £1,000  for  the  5 
per  cent.  Bonds  of  the  General  Debt  of  the  Ottoman  Empire. 

The  thirteenth  loan,  issued  in  September,  1873,  for  the  nomi- 
nal amount  of  £28,000,000,  proved  a  failure  for  the  time,  the 
subscription  not  reaching  one-sixth  of  the  required  amount. 

But  the  fourteenth  and  last  loan,  the  first  installment  of  which, 
30 


466  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

to  the  amount  of  £15,900,000,  was  issued  in  September,  1874, 
found  numerous  subscribers. 

The  amount  of  the  internal  or  floating  debt  of  Turkey  is  stated 
variously. 

In  the  report  of  the  Special  Budget  Commission,  certifying  the 
estimates  1874-75,  it  was  announced  on  authority  that  the  total 
amount  of  the  debt  did  not  exceed  £13,000,000,  while  the  com- 
mission of  1875-76  gave  £8,935,000.  Other  reports  estimated  it 
at  £30,000,000. 

EXPORTS   AND   IMPORTS. 

According  to  the  "  Statesman's  Year  Book,*'  for  1877,  the  aver- 
age value  of  the  imports  of  Turkey  in  Europe  is  estimated  at 
£18,500,000,  and  the  exports  £10,000,000,  representing  a  total 
trade  of  £38,500,000  ;  but  for  this,  like  all  other  statistics  in  Tur- 
key, there  are  no  reliable  data. 

On  an  average  of  three  years  from  1871  to  1874,  the  shipping  of 
Constantinople  was  made  up  to  the  extent  of  20  per  cent.  Brit- 
ish;  19  per  cent.  Italian;  18  per  cent.  Austrian;  16  per  cent. 
French ;  13  per  cent.  Greek,  and  the  remainder  was  made  up  of 
vessels  sailing  under  the  flags  of  Turkey,  Eussia,  and  a  number 
of  other  countries. 

The  value  of  commercial  intercourse  between  the  Turkish  Em- 
pire (exclusive  of  the  tributary  states  of  Egypt  and  Eoumania) 
and  the  United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  was  : 


Exports  from 

Imports  from 

Years. 

Turkey  to  Great  Britain. 

Great  Britain  to  Torkey. 

1870 

6,636,909 

7,088,369 

1871 

7,038,510 

5,996,634 

1873 

5,540,529 

7,639,143 

1873 

6,068,925 

7,733,487 

1874 

5.842,864 

7,037,707 

The  staple  article  of  exports  to  the  United  Kingdom  has  been 
corn.  The  corn  exports  in  1874  were  of  the  total  revenue  of 
£•2,305,375,  divided  as  follows  :  wheat,  £318,460 ;  barley, 
£1,451,330  ;  maize,  £517,362 ;  mixed  kinds,  £18,223. 

Next  in  value  to  corn  stands  goat's  hair,  valonia,  and  opium, 
which  in  1874,  to  the  United  Kingdom,  were  respectively : 
£1,020,106,  £498,665,  £407,105. 

In  1864  the  export  of  raw  cotton  to  this  country  was  £1,560,968, 
but  in  1874  only  £38,929. 


APPENDIX  F. 


467 


The  British  imports  to  Turkey  are  principally  manufactured 
cottons.  In  1874,  £5,229,038  ;  and  of  woolens,  £234,953  ;  iron, 
■wrought  and  un wrought,  £490,772.* 

Turkey  has  so  much  available  water-power,  and  such  excellent 
soil  for  the  growth  of  cotton,  and  such  vast  grazings  and  innu- 
merable flocks  of  sheep,  that  she  should  be  able  to  grow  and  man- 
ufacture all  her  cotton  and  woolen  stuffs. 

The  following  is  the  Expenditure  and  Eevenue  of  Turkey  for 
the  years  1874-75  and  1875-76  :— 


Tears 
Branches  of  Revenue.  1874-5. 

Property  Tax £2,963,370 

Patent  Taxes 681,820 

Exemptions  from  Military  Service 757,170 

Tithes 7,954,545 

Sheep  Tax 1,977,270 

Customs 1,886,365 

Tobacco 1,363,635 

Silk 

Spirits 

Tapou  (Title  Deeds'  Duty) 

Stamps 

Contracts 

Judicial  Taxes 

Miscellaneous  Taxes 


49,180 

, 227,270 

681,820 

454,545 

90,910 

113,635 

413,635 

Divers  Receipts 2,164,205 


Tributes — Egypt , 

"  WaUacbia. 


Moldavia. . . . 

Servia 

Samos 

Mount  Atbos. 


681,820 

22,730 

13,635 

20,910 

3,635 

655 


Total  Revenue £22,552,200 


Tears 

1875-6. 

£2,540,000 

128,800 

640,000 

6,900,000 

1,015,840 

1,060,000 

1,320,000 

44,000 

820,000 

772,000 

240,000 

40,000 

116,552 

381,200 

1,654,064 

681,820 

22,730 

13,635 

20,910 

3,685 

655 

£19,106,353 


"  Statesman's  Year  Book,"  1877. 


468 


TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 


EXPENDITtmE. 

Yeara. 

Expenditure.  1874-75. 

Foreign  Debt  Interest  and  Sinking  Fund £5,738,495 

Charges  on  General  Debt 1,781,820 

Ivocal  Annuities 610,655 

Interest  on  Floating  Debt 448,660 

Interest  on  Various  Advances 

Civil  List  and  Dotations 1,809,090 

Restitutions 4,850 

Deficiency  in  Receipts 113,635 

Ministry  of  Finance 885,740 

Administration  of  Customs 490,090 

Administration  of  Forests 159,090 

Ministry  ef  the  Interior 2,449,635 

Prefecture  of  Police 135,495 

Judicial  Salaries 420,465 

Ministry  of  Foreign  Affairs 159,090 

War  Department 3,775,370 

Ordnance 818.180 

Mipistry  of  Marine 909,090 

Ministry  of  Commerce 80,630 

Ministry  of  Public  Instruction 113,635 

Sanitary  Administration 

Ministry  of  Public  Works 103,620 

Telegraphs  and  Post  * 590,365 

Guarantee  of  Interest  to  Railways 1,332,910 

Total  Expenditure £22,849,610 

Deficit £397,410 


Tears. 
1875-76. 

£5,763,560 

3,065,580 

916,716 

1,108,340 

989,372 

1,594,736 

5,600 


738,584 

664,936 

161,564 

2,206,196 

140,824 

383,176 

140,000 

3,122.328 

640,000 

640,000 

21,393 

101,644 

68,313 

89,480 

841,920 

197,188 

£23,143,276 

£4,036,934 


According  to  the  most  reliable  estimates,  the  actual  expenditure  ex 
ceeded  the  actual  revenue  in  recent  years  by  seven  or  eight  millions  sterling 
but  as  this  is  supposition,  it  must  not  be  taken  for  granted. 

It  is  calculated  that  the  actual  revenue  of  1875-76  will  not  be  more  than 
£15,300,000,  while  the  expenditure,  in  consequence  of  the  war,  will  be 
£33,400,000,  leaving  a  deficit  of  £17,000,000. 

But  such  exaggerated  reports  are  spread  in  connection  with  Turkey  that 
these  statements  must  be  received  with  caution. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  in  Turkey  there  are  a  number  of  people 
whose  business  consists  in  spreading  false  reports  to  the  detriment  of  the 
country.  The  shortcomings  of  Turkey  are  bad  enough,  without  being  ex- 
aggerated. 


*  The  number  of  Telegrapli  Offices  in  Turkey  in  1875  was  401,  and  tlie  length  of  the  tele- 
graph lines  28,155  kilometres. 


APPENDIX  F. 


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BIGHTS  OF  FOREIGNERS  TO  HOLD  REAL  PROPERTY. 

Protocol. 

The  law  which  grants  to  foreigners  the  right  to  hold  real 
property  does  not  in  any  way  affect  the  immunities  sanctioned  by 
Treaties,  which  will  continue  to  cover  the  person  and  the  personal 
property  of  foreigners  who  may  have  become  proprietors  of  real 
estate. 

The  exercise  of  such  right  of  property  being  likely  to  induce 
foreigners  to  establish  themselves  in  greater  numbers  in  Ottoman 
territory,  the  Imperial  Government  deems  itself  bound  to  antici- 
pate and  prevent  the  difficulties  to  which  the  application  of  that 
law  may  give  rise  in  certain  localities.  This  is  the  object  of  the 
following  arrangements. 

The  dwelling  of  every  person  inhabiting  the  Ottoman  territory 
being  inviolable,  and  no  one  being  entitled  to  enter  it  without  the 
consent  of  its  master,  unless  in  virtue  of  orders  issued  by  the  com- 
petent authority,  and  with  the  assistance  of  the  magistrate  or 
functionary  invested  with  the  necessary  powers,  the  dwelling  of  a 
foreign  subject  is  inviolable  by  the  same  right,  in  conformity  with 
Treaties ;  and  the  officers  of  police  cannot  enter  therein  without 
the  assistance  of  the  Consul  of  the  country  to  which  the  foreigner 
belongs,  or  of  his  delegate. 

By  the  term  dwelling  is  understood  the  house  of  residence  and 
its  appurtenances,  tliat  is  to  say,  tlie  outhouses,  courts,  gardens, 
and  contiguous  inclosures,  to  the  exclusion  of  all  other  parts  of 
the  property. 

In  localities  distant  less  than  nine  hours  from  the  Consular  resi- 
dence, the  officers  of  police  cannot  enter  the  dwelling  of  a  foreigner 
without  the  assistance  of  the  Consul,  as  above  stated.  On  his  part 
the  Consul  is  bound  to  afford  his  aid  immediately  to  the  local 
authority,  so  that  not  more  than  six  hours  shall  elapse  between  the 

473 


474  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

moment  Avhen  he  shall  have  been  apprized,  and  the  moment  of  the 
departure  of  himself  or  of  his  delegate,  in  order  that  the  action  of 
the  authorities  may  never  be  suspended  for  more  than  twenty -four 
hours. 

In  localities  distant  nine  hours',  or  more  than  nine  hours' 
journey  from  the  residence  of  the  Consular  Agent,  the  officers  of 
police  may,  on  the  requisition  of  the  local  authority,  and  with  the 
assistance  of  three  members  of  the  Council  of  Ancients  of  the 
Commune,  enter  the  dwelling  of  a  foreign  subject,  without  the 
presence  of  the  Consular  Agent,  but  only  in  case  of  urgency,  and 
for  the  investigation  or  the  proof  of  the  crime  of  murder,  of  at- 
tempt to  murder,  of  arson,  of  robbery  with  violence,  or  with 
house-breaking,  or  at  night  in  an  inhabited  dwelling,  of  armed 
rebellion,  and  of  the  fabrication  of  false  money  ;  and  whether  the 
crime  shall  have  been  committed  by  a  foreign  subject,  or  by  an 
Ottoman  subject,  and  whether  it  shall  have  taken  place  within  the 
habitation  of  the  foreigner,  or  outside  of  such  habitation,  and  in 
any  other  place  whatever. 

These  arrangements  are  aj)plicable  only  to  those  parts  of  the 
property  which  constitute  the  dwelling,  as  defined  above.  Beyond 
the  dwelling,  the  action  of  the  police  shall  be  free  and  without 
reserve  ;  but  in  case  an  individual  accused  of  a  crime  or  offense 
should  be  arrested,  and  the  accused  be  a  foreign  subject,  the  im- 
munities attaching  to  his  person  shall  be  observed  with  regard  to 
him. 

The  functionary  or  officer  charged  with  the  performance  of  the 
domiciliary  visit,  under  the  exceptional  circumstances  above  de- 
scribed, and  the  members  of  the  Council  of  Ancients  Avho  shall 
assist  him,  shall  be  bound  to  draw  up  a  Minute  of  the  domiciliary 
visit,  and  to  communicate  it  immediately  to  their  sujjerior  au- 
thority, who  shall  himself  transmit  it  without  delay  to  the  nearest 
Consular  authority. 

A  special  regulation  shall  be  promulgated  by  the  Sublime  Porte, 
in  order  to  determine  the  mode  of  action' of  the  local  police  in  the 
different  cases  above  contemplated. 

In  localities  distant  more  than  nine  hours  from  the  residence  of 
the  Consular  Agent,  and  in  which  the  law  relative  to  the  judicial 
organization  of  the  vilaiet  shall  be  in  force,  the  cases  of  foreign 
subjects  shall  be  tried,  without  the  assistance  of  the  Consular 
delegate,  by  the  Council  of  Ancients  fulfilling  the  functions  of 


APPENDIX  G.  475 

Judge  of  the  Peace,  and  by  tlie  Court  of  the  Caza,  as  well  in 
actions  the  subject-matter  of  which  shall  not  exceed  1,000  piasters, 
as  in  offenses  punishable  by  a  fine  not  exceeding  500  piasters. 

Foreign  subjects  shall,  in  all  cases,  have  the  right  to  appeal  to 
the  Court  of  the  Sandjah  against  decisions  given  as  above  de- 
scribed ;  and  the  appeal  shall  be  heard  and  decided  with  the 
assistance  of  the  Consul,  in  conformity  Avith  Treaties. 

An  appeal  shall  always  suspend  execution. 

In  no  case  can  the  forcible  execution  of  decisions  given  under 
the  circumstances  above  described  take  place  without  the  concur- 
rence of  the  Consul  or  his  deputy. 

The  Imperial  Government  shall  issue  a  Law  which  shall  deter- 
mine the  rules  of  procedure  to  be  observed  by  the  parties  in  the 
application  of  the  foregoing  arrangements. 

Foreign  subjects,  in  whatever  place,  are  authorized  to  make 
themselves  voluntarily  amenable  to  the  Council  of  Ancients,  or  to 
the  Courts  of  the  Cazas,  without  the  assistance  of  the  Consul,  in 
actions  the  subject-matter  of  which  does  not  exceed  the  compe- 
tence of  those  Councils  or  Courts,  saving,  however,  the  right  of 
appeal  to  the  Court  of  the  Sandjah,  where  the  cause  shall  be 
heard  and  decided  with  the  assistance  of  the  Consul  or  his  dele- 
gate. 

The  consent,  however,  of  the  foreign  subject  to  submit  to  the 
jurisdiction  above  described,  without  the  assistance  of  the  Consul, 
must  be  given  in  writing,  and  previously  to  any  proceeding. 

It  is  well  understood  that  all  these  restrictions  do  not  concern 
suits  involving  a  question  of  real  property,  which  shall  be  carried 
on  and  decided  under  the  conditions  established  by  the  Law. 

The  right  of  defense  and  of  publicity  of  hearing  are  secured  in 
aU  matters  to  foreigners  who  shall  appear  before  the  Ottoman 
Courts,  as  well  as  to  Ottoman  subjects. 

The  preceding  arrangements  shall  remain  in  force  until  the  re- 
yision  of  the  ancient  Treaties,  a  revision  with  regard  to  which  the 
Sublime  Porte  reserves  to  itself  to  come  hereafter  to  an  agreement 
with  friendly  Powers. 

In  witness  whereof  the  respective  Plenipotentiaries  have  signed 
the  present  Protocol,  and  have  affixed  thereto  the  seal  of  their  arms. 

Done  at  Constantinople,  the  twenty-eighth  day  of  July,  in  the 
year  eighteen  hundred  and  sixty-eight. 
(L.S.)        Hexrt  Elliot.  (L.S.)        Fuad. 


476  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

Law  granting  to  Foreigners  the  rigid  to  hold  Beat  Property  in  the 
Ottoman  Empire. 

Imperial  Eesckipt. 

*'Let  it  be  done  in  conformity  with  wliat  is  herein  contained." 

Sepher  7,  1285. 

With  the  view  to  develop  the  prosperity  of  the  country,  to  put 
an  end  to  the  difficulties,  abuses,  and  uncertainties  which  arise 
relative  to  the  exercise  of  the  right  of  proiDerty  by  foreigners  in 
the  Ottoman  Empire,  and  to  complete,  by  means  of  precise  regu- 
lations, the  guarantees  due  to  financial  interests  and  to  adminis- 
trative action,  the  following  legislative  arrangements  have  been 
determined  by  order  of  His  Imperial  Majesty,  the  Sultan  : — 

Article  I. 

Foreigners  are  admitted,  on  the  same  footing  as  Ottoman  sub- 
jects, and  without  other  conditions,  to  the  enjoyment  of  the  right 
of  holding  urban  or  rural  real  property  throughout  the  whole 
extent  of  the  Empire,  with  the  exception  of  the  province  of  the 
Hedjaz,  submitting  to  the  laws  and  regulations  which  govern 
Ottoman  subjects  themselves,  as  hereinafter  stated. 

This  arrangement  does  not  concern  Ottoman  subjects  by  birth 
who  have  changed  their  nationality,  and  who  shall  be  governed 
in  regard  to  this  matter  by  a  special  law. 

Article  II. 

Foreigners  who  are  proprietors  of  real  property,  urban  or  rural, 
are  in  consequence  assimilated  to  Ottoman  subjects  in  all  that 
concerns  their  real  property. 

Such  assimilation  has  for  its  legal  effect — 

1.  To  oblige  them  to  conform  to  all  the  laws  and  all  the  police 
or  municipal  regulations  which  at  present  govern,  or  may  here- 
after govern,  the  enjoyment,  transmission,  alienation,  and  hy- 
pothecation of  landed  property. 

2.  To  pay  all  the  charges  and  contributions,  under  whatever 
form  or  denomination,  which  are  now  or  may  hereafter  be  im- 
posed on  urban  or  rural  real  property. 

3.  To  render  them  directly  amenable  to  the  Ottoman  Civil 
Courts  in  regard  to  all  questions  relative  to  landed  property,  and 
to  all  real  actions,  both  as  plaintiffs  and  as  defendants,  even  when 


APPENDIX  G.  477 

both  parties  are  foreign  subjects,  the  whole  on  the  same  footing, 
under  the  same  conditions,  and  in  the  same  forms  as  Ottoman 
proprietors,  and  without  the  power  of  availing  themselves  in  such 
matters  of  their  personal  nationality ;  but  under  the  reservation 
of  the  immunities  attaching  to  their  persons  and  their  personal 
property,  according  to  the  terms  of  Treaties. 

Article  III. 

In  case  of  the  bankruptcy  of  a  foreign  owner  of  real  property, 
the  syndics  of  his  bankruptcy  shall  take  the  necessary  steps  before 
the  Ottoman  authorities  and  Civil  Courts,  in  order  to  demand 
the  sale  of  the  real  property  possessed  by  the  bankrupt,  which 
from  its  nature  and  in  accordance  with  the  law,  is  liable  for  the 
debts  of  the  owner. 

The  same  course  shall  be  observed  when  a  foreigner  shall  have 
obtained  against  another  foreign  proprietor  of  real  property  an 
adverse  judgment  before  foreign  Courts. 

For  the  execution  of  such  judgment  on  the  real  property  of  his 
debtor,  he  shall  apply  to  the  competent  Ottoman  authority  in 
order  to  obtain  the  sale  of  such  part  of  that  real  property  as  is 
liable  for  tlie  debts  of  the  owner ;  and  such  judgment  shall  not 
be  carried  into  execution  by  the  Ottoman  authorities  and  Courts 
until  after  they  shall  have  ascertained  that  the  real  property 
which  is  required  to  be  sold  really  belongs  to  the  class  which  may 
be  sold  in  order  to  pay  the  debt. 

Aeticle  IV. 
The  foreign  subject  has  the  right  to  dispose  by  gifts  or  by  will 
of  such  part  of  his  real  property  as  the  law  permits  to  be  disposed 
of  in  that  manner. 

With  regard  to  the  real  property  Avhicli  he  may  not  have  dis- 
posed of,  or  which  the  law  does  not  allow  to  be  disposed  of  by  gift 
or  by  will,  the  succession  thereto  shall  be  governed  by  the  Otto- 
man law. 

Article  Y. 

Every  foreign  subject  shall  enjoy  the  benefit  of  the  present 
Law,  so  soon  as  the  Power  to  which  he  belongs  shall  have  acceded 
to  the  arrangements  proposed  by  the  Sublime  Porte  for  the  exer- 
cise of  the  right  of  property. 

Constantinople,  June  18,  1867. 


APPENDIX  H. 


SHEEP-FAKMING. 

The  following  is  a  debtor  and  creditor  account  of  the  sheep- 
farming,  on  the  native  system,  of  1,000  ewes,  in  Macedonia,  as 
given  to  me  by  a  flock-master,  who  said  that  the  balance  to  credit 
would  be  considered  a  bad  year.  From  other  inquiries  which  I 
have  made,  I  think  it  may  fairly  be  taken  as  an  average  profit 
over  a  numbeT  of  years,  allowing  for  loss  by  severe  epidemics 
(which  in  that  country  are  not  frequent)  and  bad  winters  : — 

CAPITAL. 

1,000  ewes  with  lambs  by  their  side,  bought  in  March  @  100  p 100,000 

50rams 5,000 

Reeds,  etc.,  etc 5,000 


110,000 


1,000  lambs  @  40  p 40,000 

1,050  Okes  wool  (§>  10  p 10,500 

Cheese  and  butter 15,000 


65,500 


2  shepherds  @  2,500  p 5,000 

4         "         @1300p 4,800 

Sheep  tax  @  4^  p 4,725 

Grazing  @  12  p 12,600 

Barley@4p 4,200 

15  %  loss 16,500 


Balance. 


47,825 
.17,675 


65,500 


The  loss  is  put  down  at  the  very  high  rate  of  15  per  cent.,  be- 
cause although  the  climate  and  grass  of  Macedonia  is  almost  a 
paradise  for  sheep,  and  epidemics  are  very  rare,  yet  from  the  care- 
less native  system  of  making  no  provision  for  winter  feed,  with 
hay,  etc.,  when  a  drought  or  severe  winter  occurs  the  loss  is  very 
heavy,  and  would  amount  to  as  much  as  40  or  50  per  cent, 
among  the  starving  animals.  On  the  other  hand,  in  ordinary 
years  the  loss  is  very  small.    The  flock-master  told  me  that  in  the 

478 


APPENDIX  B.  479 

last  two  years,  out  of  500  sheep,  ho  had  only  lost  6  ;  but  of  course 
that  is  exceptional. 

The  number  of  shepherds  is  necessarily  large  for  the  number 
of  sheep,  because  tlie  flocks  have  to  be  divided,  and  when  on  the 
plains  require  careful  watching  to  keep  them  off  the  crops,  as  there 
are  no  fences. 

By  the  foregoing  account  grazing  for  summer  would  be  rented 
on  the  neighboring  mountains,  and  for  winter  on  the  plains  be- 
low.   The  lambs  would  be  sold  as  soon  as  weaned. 

AKABLE   FARMING. 

The  following  is  a  rough  estimate  of  the  capital  which  would 
be  required  to  set  up  an  estate  of  about  1,500  acres,  of  which  1,000 
acres  would  be  cultivated  on  a  proper  system. 

It  is  assumed  that  there  would  be  the  usual  native  farm-build- 
ings on  the  estate,  and  that  the  emigrant  would  gradually  get  tho 
whole  cultivation  under  his  own  hands. 

CAPTTAIi. 

Purchase-money  of  the  estate,  with  expenses £4,800 

New  buildings  and  repairs 1,800 

English  Plows,  etc 200 

"      harrows,  etc 100 

Drilling  and  reaping  machines,  etc> 200 

Steam  threshing  machine 650 

Carts  and  harness 200 

Miscellaneous  articles 100 

80  native  horses  @  £8 640 

20  native  mares  @  £10 200 

1  English  stallion 150 

20  native  cows  @  £6 120 

1  English  bull 70 

Seed 500 

Miscellaneous  expenses 270 

Total  capital £10,000 

I  have  assumed  that  the  plowing  would  be  done  with  native 
horses,  instead  of  bullocks  or  buffaloes,  although  such  is  not  tho 
custom  of  the  country ;  but  horses  can  do  all  draught  work  so 
much  better  than  oxen  that  the  change  would  be  advisable,  but  it 
would  have  to  be  made  gradually,  as  the  horses  would  have  to  be 
trained  to  the  plow. 

The  following  is  a  rough  estimate  of  the  annual  receipts  and 


480 


TURKEY  m  EUROPE. 


expenditure  upon  sucli  a  farm,  taking  the  expenditure   at  full 
rates,  and  the  receipts  at  moderate  prices  : — 


Receipts. 

325     acres    of     Wheat 

@  28  bushels  to    the 

acre  =  9,100  bushels. 

910  less  tithe. 

8,190 
650  less  seed. 


7,540  b. 


V 


=  £1,696 


325  acres  of  Barley  or 
Eye,  say  Barley  @  35 
bushels  =  11,375 

1,137  less  tithe. 


10,288 

975  less  seed. 


9,263  b.  @  V«     =  1,157 
850  acres  summer  crops,  etc.  =  1,650 


£4,503 


Expenditure. 

Soubassi  or  native  Bailiff £35 

2  gardes-champetre 50 

Cattle-herds  and  horse-keepers ...  80 

Carpenter 35 

Blacksmith 20 

20  plowmen  @  £18 360 

20  lads  @  £10 200 

Harvesting  and  extra  labor 208 

Keep  of  90  working  horses  @  £5..  450 

"      50  mares  and  foals  @  £2..  100 

"      50  cows  and  calves  @  £2..  100 

10  %  loss  on  stock  of  value  £1,200.  120 

10  %  wear  and  tear  of  plant  value 

£1,400 140 

Taxes 50 

Miscellaneous 100 

Interest  of  5  ^  on  capital  of 

£10,000 500 


Balance. 


2,558 
.   1,945 

£4,503 


There  "would,  of  course,  be  bad  years,  when  the  crops  would  be 
less  than  I  have  stated  ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  land  is  so 
rich  that  there  would  be  years  when  the  crops  would  be  much 
heavier.  I  l:^ave  not  credited  any  sale  of  young  stock  ;  but,  on 
the  other  hand,  there  are  always  contingencies  on  every  farm 
which  would  counterbalance  that  profit.  On  the  whole,  I  think 
it  may  be  taken  as  a  fair  statement  of  profit  on  an  average  of 
years,  but  it  must  be  remembered  that  such  a  result  could  only  be 
arrived  at  after  two  or  three  years  of  careful  labor  and  attention. 
The  case  under  the  native  system  is  very  different,  and  some- 
times shows  a  balance  on  the  wrong  side  ;  but  what  else  oould  bo 
expected  from  all  the  holidays  and  careless  cultivation. 


GLOSSAET 

OF    A    FEW    TURKISH    TERMS,    ETC. 


AgTia — An  officer,  and  applied  to  those  about  the  Serai.  It  also  is 
equivalent  to  our  term  "  gentleman,"  and  is  an  ancient  title. 

Almeh — Female  dancers,  who  perform  at  private  houses  for  hire. 

Altuluh — A  debased  silver  coin,  equal  to  six  piasters. 

Anadooloo — Anatolia,  Asia  Minor. 

Arnaout — An  Albanian. 

ArsMn,  or  'Tic" — A  measure  of  length,  varying  from  25-70 
inches,  or  67 '79  centimetres,  for  the  cloth  ''arshin,"  to 
26*34  inches,  or  66*91  centimetres,  for  the  builder's  "ar- 
shin." 

Ashr,  also  UsJir — The  tithe. 

Assur — Ruins. 

Bairam — A  festival  of  three  days,  which  succeeds  the  Eamazan. 

Bash — Head  ;  chief. 

Bashi-Bazouh — Literally,  light-headed ;  a  foolish  fellow  ;  but  it 
is  applied  to  irregular  troops. 

Bedel— The  military  exemption  tax;  also  called  "bedelie," 
"askerie,"  etc. 

Beshlih—A.  debased  silver  coin,  equal  to  five  piasters.  It  is  the 
official  currency. 

Bey—K.  title  formerly  of  the  holder  of  an  Imperial  fief  ( "  bey-lik  "). 
It  ranks  with  a  lieutenant-colonel  in  the  army,  is  attached 
to  his  title,  and  is  hereditary. 

Beyler  Bey—Bey  of  beys  ;  an  ancient  title  given  to  military  com- 
manders of  provinces  under  the  feudal  system,  and  carrying 

three  horses'  tails  as  emblems  of  rank. 

481 


482  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

Bin  hashi — A  colonel  in  the  army. 

Cadi,  or  Cazi — A  member  of  the  Ulema,  and  a  judge. 

Caimacam — A  governor  of  a  caza,  or  district  next  in  rank  to  a 
sandjak  or  liva. 

Capitan — The  commander  of  a  ship. 

Capooji — A  chamberlain  ;  officer  of  the  seraglio  ;  literally  a  door- 
keeper. 

Caza — A  district,  next  in  importance  to  a  sandjak  or  liva. 

Charsliy — A  bazaar. 

Chelihi — A  Christian  gentleman. 

ChifliTc — A  private  estate  or  farm. 

CliinganeJi  or  TcliinganeTi — Gipsy. 

Commune,  vide  Kariye — An  administrative  subdivision. 

Damga — Grovernment  staimp  affixed  to  certain  home-made  goods, 
and  for  the  purpose  of  levying  duty. 

Defterdar — The  accountant-general  of  a  vildi'et. 

Demir  Yoloo — Railway. 

Demoyeros — "Elder"  or  ** Primate."  An  elective  municipal 
functionary. 

Dervisli — A  Turkish  monk.  There  are  various  fanatical  orders  of 
dervishes. 

Divan — An  Assembly  in  Council  of  State  officials. 

Dragoman,  or  Terjuman — An  interpreter. 

Dunum — A  land  measure  of  forty  "  arshins,"  but  variable.  The 
rough  method  of  measuring  land  is  by  paces ;  forty-four 
paces  was  the  old  "  dunum,"  and  forty  paces  is  the  new 
"  dunum." 

Effendim,  or  Effendi — Equal  to  "  sir,"  but  a  cusbomary  expres- 
sion of  address  when  speaking  to  any  class. 

Eidlet — One  of  the  late  divisions  of  the  empire,  which  was  divided 
into  sandjaks,  etc. 

Emir — Prince. 

Ferik — A  lieutenant  -  general  or  general  of  division  in  the 
army. 


GLOSSARY  OF  TURKISH  TERMS.  483 

Fetvali — A  counsel's  decision,  or  a  judicial  decision  either  of  the 
Sheik-ul-Islam  or  of  the  Mufti  for  a  fee. 

Firenh — European  ;  Frank. 

Firman — An  Imperial  edict  or  order  headed  by  the  Sultan's  sig- 
nature. 

Giaour  (from  ''Gueber,"  a  fire  worshipper) — A  term  of  con- 
tempt ;  an  infidel ;  also  used  to  express  Christians  in  gen- 
eral without  intending  insult. 

Gumruh — Custom-house  duties. 

Harem — Sanctuary  ;  that  part  of  the  Serai  appropriated  for 
women  ;  tlie  court-yard  of  a  mosque. 

Hatt-i-chcrif — An  Imj^erial  ordinance  ;  the  illustrious  writing. 

Hatt-i-humayoun — An  Imj)erial  ordinance  ;  the  august  writing. 

Hejira — Flight.  The  Moslem  era  dates  from  the  year  of  the  he- 
jira,  or  flight  of  the  propbet  from  Mecca. 

Hodya  Bashi — A  term  api^lied  to  the  Mouktars,  or  mayors  of 
Christian  communities  ;  the  bead  man  of  a  Tillage.  Hod- 
ya— The  tutor  to  the  royal  princes. 

Hitiar — Primate,  or  elder  ;  in  Greek  "  Demoyeros,"  a  member  of 
the  Communal  Municipal  Council.  By  law  these  function- 
aries are  elected  by  the  citizens,  who  pay  at  least  fifty  pias- 
ters per  annum  in  direct  taxes. 

Hitizah — A  generic  name  for  the  aggregate  of  certain  indirect 
imposts.  In  some  places  a  specific  term  used  to  designate 
duties  on  sales  and  gate-dues  of  towns  ("  octrois"). 

Iltizam — The  system  of  farming  or  selling  the  collection  of  taxes 
to  private  speculators. 

Imam — A  Turkish  priest,  next  in  rank  to  a  Khatib  ;  also  one  of 
the  titles  of  the  Sultan.  The  Imams  read  the  prayers,  and 
tbe  Sheiks  preach. 

Imaret — A  hospital  or  soup  kitchen  for  the  relief  of  the  poor, 
travelers,  etc. 

Iradeh — An  Imperial  ordinance. 

lami — A  mosque  of  the  higher  class. 


484  TURKEY  IN  EUROPE. 

Kariye — Commune ;  the  smallest  administratiye  subdiYision  or 
unit. 

Kayim — An  inferior  order  of  the  priesthood,  next  in  rank  to  a 
Muezzin. 

Kliatih — A  priest  attached  to  a  mosque,  next  in  rank  to  a  Sheik. 

Kiahay a— M.ii^tQV  ;  steward  ;  lieutenant ;  a  Tillage  official  ap- 
pointed to  attend  to  strangers.  Kiahaya-ley — Formerly 
the  title  of  the  Minister  of  the  Interior. 

KiU,  or  Kilo — A  corn  measure,  which  varies  with  locality.  That 
of  Constantinople  is  equal  to  7*29  gallons,  33  "14  litres,  or 
about  1^  of  a  bushel ;  that  of  Salonica  is  equal  to  about 
four  bushels. 

KonaJc — A  government  house.  Also  used  to  designate  a  gentle- 
man's house. 

Koorlan-bairam — The  feast  of  sacrifices  celebrated  by  rejoicings, 
etc. 

Kot—A  dry  measure,  about  two  gallons. 

Kubleh— The  point  to  which  a  Moslem  turns  when  at  prayer. 

MalialU — A  quarter  of  a  town,  or  an  urban  commune. 

Malmudiri — The  accountant  of  a  caza. 

Medjliss — Court  council. 

Medresseli — A  college  attached  to  the  great  mosques. 

Meidan — An  open  square,  or  piece  of  ground. 

Mejidieh — A  silver  coin  ;  20  piasters,  or  gold ;  100  piasters  ;  an 
order,  or  decoration. 

MeTcteb — A  school. 

Mesjid — An  ordinary  mosque,  which  has  neither  a  Sheik  nor 
Khatib  attached  to  it. 

Mevlivi — Spinning  dervishes. 

Mollah — A  superior  member  of  the  division  of  the  TJlema ;  an 
interpreter  of  the  sacred  law. 

MouTctar — A  chief  municipal  officer  (mayor)  elected  by  each 
community  possessing  twenty  or  more  houses  in  the  com- 
mune. 


GLOSSARY  OF  TVREISE  TERMS.  485 

Mudir — A  magistrate  at  the  head  of  a  nahieh,  and  sometimes  of 

a  caza. 
Muezzin — Inferior  officers  of  the  mosques,  who  call  to  prayers 

from  the  minarets,  next  in  rank  to  an  Imam. 
Mufti — An  interpreter  of  the  law  ;  a  member  of  the  Ulcma  ;  a 

counsel. 
Multei/im — A  tithe  farmer,  also  termed  "Ushrdji." 
Mushir — A  title  sometimes  borne  by  Pashas  ;  a  Field  Marshal  in 

the  army. 
Musselim — A  governor  of  a  city. 

Mufessarif—An  administrative  functionary  at  the  head  of  a  sand  jak. 
Muhassebelidji — The  accountant  of  a  sand  jak. 
Nahieh — A  large  rural  commune,  or  sometimes  .  an  aggregate  of 

several  smaller  communes,  administered  by  a  Mudir. 
Namaz — The  Moslem  prayer  recited  five  times  a  day. 
Nizam — The  regular  active  army. 
Ohe — A  weight  equal  to  2-83  lbs.,  1-28  kilogrammes  ;  it  is  also 

used  for  liquids. 
Piaster— ThQ  official  piaster, j^^  of  a  Turkish  lira,  or  2166  pence. 
Ramazan — The  ninth  month  of  the  Turkish  year,  in  which  falls 

the  fast  of  twenty-eight  days  of  that  name — the  Moham- 
medan Lent. 
Rayah — A  non- Mussulman  subject  of  the  Porte. 
Redif—ThQ  reserve  force  of  the  regular  army. 
Rossoumdt — A  name  given  to  some  miscellaneous   and  indirect 

taxes,  varying  in  different  provinces. 
Salyane — A  new  tax  on  property. 
Sandjah — An  administrative  province  of  the  second  order  ;  a  liva, 

governed  by  a  Mutessarif. 
<^a7iz— Formerly  the  holder  of  a  Government  military  fief,  now 

a  term  applied  in  some  places  to  the  "  Tahsildars." 
Tahsildar — Government  collector  of  taxes. 
Tanziindt—RQloim  ;  specially  applied  to  the  measures  carried  out 

in  1839. 


486  TURKEY  m  EUROPE. 

Tapou — A  title-deed  ;  a  peculiar  feudal  tenure  of  tlie  land. 

Tehieli — A  Mohammedan  monastery. 

TesTcerre — A  passport. 

Timettoo — The  new  income-tax. 

Ushr,  also  Ashr — The  tithe. 

Ushurji — Tithe  collector. 

Vacouf — A  kind  of  copyhold  tenure,  by  which  property  is  held 

in  trust  for  certain  ecclesiastical  or  charitable  corporations 
Vali — A  Governor- General  of  a  vilaiet. 
Verghi — A  tax  or  tribute  raised  on  property  and  income. 
Vilaiet — An  administrative  division  of  the  first  class,  divided  into 

sandjaks. 
WoTcalut — The  system  of  collecting  taxes  on  Government  account 

as  opposed  to  the  Iltizam. 
Youruh — Turcoman  of  Asia  Minor,  etc. 
Zaptieh — Policeman. 


INDEX. 


Abdul  Aziz,  Sultan,  55,  186,  393, 
Abdul,  Medjid,  Sultan,  1C9,  185. 
Accident,  Au,  315. 
Administration,  Scliool  of,  460. 
Turkish,  443. 
Aghas,  139,  453. 
Agitators,  257. 
Ahmed  Pasha,  276. 
Aladdin,  Sultan,  128. 
Albania  in  the  Caucasus,  317. 
"         Divisions  of,  321. 
"        Subjection  of,  244. 
Albanians,  Tlie,  317. 

Blood  Feuds  of,  324. 

"         Origin  of,  318. 

"  Religion  of,  323. 

'*  Soldiers  of,  328. 

"  Tribes  of,  318. 

Women  of,  323. 
Alexander  Kara  Georgevitch,  251, 
Alliance,  Universal  Israelite,  359, 
Alp  Arslan,  126. 
Alphabet,  Slavonic,  23. 
American  Philanthropy,  364, 

"  Missions,  35. 

"         Missionaries,  306, 
Americans,  Traveling,  363. 
Amurath,  Sultan,  131,  242. 
Ancient  Remains  in  Salouica,  353. 
Angora,  Battle  of,  133. 
Arable  Farming,  478. 
Arms,  Cliange  of,  in  Army,  261. 
Army,  Administration  of,  269. 
"       Christians  in  Turkish,  384. 
"       Physical  Composition  of,  273. 
Arnaouts,  The,  317. 
Arniatika,  The,  386. 
Artillery,  264. 

"  Introduction  of,  165. 

Aryan  Race,  13. 
Arz-odaci,  445. 
Ashr,  or  Tithe,  The,  378. 
Asoraaton,  Fortress  of,  155. 
Atrocities,  False  Reports  of,  209, 
Attack,  Probable  Plan  of  Russian,  294, 


Attar  of  Rose,  214. 
Aurochs,  347. 
Avars,  19. 
Ayak-nuib,  446, 

B. 

Backshish,  7, 131,  3?7. 

Bajazid,  Sultan,  133. 

Balkan  Mountains,  85,  200,  214.  ^ 

"       Passes  of  the,  284, 
Barakli-Djuniaa,  336. 
Barron.  Mr.,  384. 
Bashi-Bazouks,  267. 
Basil  II,  Cruelty  of,  24 
Ba^'ezed,  Prince,  243. 
Beard,  Plucking  out  the,  203. 
Bears,  310. 

Beaurocratic  School,  459. 
Becklemes,  230,  243. 
Bedel,  The,  384. 
Belgrade,  Massacre  at,  254. 
Bermius  Mountains,  354. 
Bertezema,  132. 
Beshlik  Currency,  378, 
Besik,  Lake  of,  341. 
Bevler  Bev,  Title  of,  140. 
Beyliks,  137,  399. 
Bhotiya  Race,  16. 
Bib-Doda,  Prince,  323. 
Black  Eunuchs,  453. 
Black  Sea,  Communication  with  Cas- 
pian, 66. 
Black  Sea  Coast,  Scenery  of,  85. 
Blood  Feuds  of  Albanians,  324. 
Bogaris,  King,  23. 
Bogomiles.  Sect  of,  39. 
Bombar,  88. 
Bonds,  Turkish,  390, 
Booyutoo,  64, 
Borboros,  Marsh  of,  345. 
Bosnia,  Subjection  of,  244, 
Bosphorus,  Currents  of,  66. 
Bosphorus,  Trips  on,  9, 
Botheric,  350, 

487 


488 


.  INDEX. 


Brankovitcli,  George,  244. 

Yuk,  243. 
Bribery,  268. 

Brigandage,  69,  252,  298,  309. 
Brophy,  Mr.  Charles,  83,  201,  238. 
Bucharest,  256. 
Buffaloes,  408. 
Building,  Cost  of,  419. 
Bugs,  117,  207,  372. 
Billgaria,  Russian  Maps  of,  41. 

"         Atrocities,  District  of,  204. 

Church,  23,  41,  435. 
"         Exarchate,  437. 
"         Progress,  221. 

Villages,  208,  211. 
"         Music,  Similarity  to  Scotch, 

90. 
"         Women,  89. 
Bulgarians,  18. 

"  American  Schools  among, 

35. 
"  Costumes  of,  88. 

"  Finnish  Origin  of,  18. 

"  Industry  of,  87. 

"  Introduction  of  Christian- 

ity among,  22. 
"  Greek  Discredit  of,  25. 

"  National  Feeling  of,  24. 

"  Newspapers  of  the,  40. 

"  North  and  South  of  Bal- 

kan, 19. 
Number  of,  58. 
"  Rebellion  of,  52. 

"  Russian  Intrigues  among, 

41,  50. 
"  Schools  of  the,  81. 

"  Transition    of    Language 

of,  20. 
"  Warlike  Character  of,  21. 

"  Weddings  and    Funerals 

of,  89. 
Bulls,  Wild,  347. 

Bulwer,  Sir  Henry,  Letters  from,  174. 
Burgas,  69,  83,  105,  293. 
Burgoyne,  Sir  John,  282. 
Butter,  409. 

Byzantine  Architecture  in  Burgas,  69. 
Byzantine  Empire,  74. 

Fall  of, 


Cadi,  or  Cazi,  143. 
Cadiaskers,  138,  445. 
Caimacam,  443. 
Calemiyeh,  456. 
Calvert,  Frederick,  4. 
Cannons,  Monster,  157. 
Cantacuzenus,  Joannes,  130. 


Capital  Necessary  for  Farming,  417. 

Captain  Pasha,  454. 

Caravans,  3B6. 

Carpets,  Turkey,  411. 

Caspian  Sea,  Level  of,  67. 

Castle,  Ancient,  226. 

Castriot,  John,  319. 

Cattle,  118,  408. 

Cavalla,  410. 

Cavalry,  264. 

Cavasses,  328. 

Cazas,  143.  443. 

Caziasker,  138,  445. 

Chalcondylas,  279. 

('hamois,  313. 

Champion,  A  Gypsy,  337. 

Chatal  Dagh,  200. 

Cheese,  409. 

Chiflik,  399,  443. 

Cliifgees,  400. 

Christianity  in  Bulgaria,  21. 

Christians,  Former  Treatment  of,  142. 

Chromis,  The,  345. 

Church,  Bulgarian,  435. 

"        Oriental  Orthodox,  75. 
Churches,  Ancient  Christian,  217. 
"  Greek  and  Roman,  76. 

"  at  Salonica,  353. 

Cicero,  349. 
Cinnabar,  229. 
Circassians  in  Turkey,  95. 

"  Forced  Emigration  of,  95. 

Hospitality  of,  99. 

"  Number  of,  101. 

"  Organization  of,  102. 

«  Petition  of,  96. 

"  Slavery  among,  101. 

"  Thieving  among,  100, 104. 

Cities,  Ancient  Greek,  346. 
City,  A  Sunken,  341. 
Cyrillic  Alphabet,  22. 
Climate  of  Turkey,  227. 
Cloth  Factory  in  Slivmia,  201. 
Cobden,  Requiem  for  Mr.,  257. 
Coal,  229,  307. 
Codja-bashi,  143. 
College  of  Artillery  and  Engineering, 

260. 
College,  Imperial  Military,  260. 
Comite,  Secret,  The,  52. 
Commands,  Special,  271. 
Commerce,  Tribunals  of,  447. 
Commercial  Travelers,  Jewish,  360. 
Commissariat,  272. 
Compliment,  A  Turkish,  203.1 
Conscription,  268. 
Conscripts,  274. 
Constantine,  Arch  of,  350. 
Constantiue,  Palceologus,  155. 


INDEX. 


480 


Constantinople,  6 

"  Cannon  at  Siege  of,  157. 

"  Fires  in,  10. 

"  Many  Races  in,  11 

'•  Military  Routes  to,  286, 

294. 

"  Municipal  Government 

of,  450. 

"  Siege  of,  155. 

"  Vilaiet  of,  450. 

Contracts,  Stamps  for,  388. 
Convent  at  Kezaulik,  218. 

"      at  Karlofer.  222. 
Converts,  Jewisli,  300. 
Copper,  229. 

Corps  d'Armee,  Command  of,  270. 
Corvee.  374,  404. 
Cossacks,  Brigade  of,  269. 
Cotton,  336, 405,  409. 
Cotton-yarn  Factory  at  Niausta,  355. 
Coumber-Khauch,  College  of    Artil- 
lery at,  260. 
Councils,  443,  4.55. 
Council  of  State,  455. 
Court  of  Appeal,  446. 

"      of  Cassation,  448. 
Courts  of  Confiscation,  168. 
"       of  Justice,  444. 
"       of  Justice,  Supreme,  448. 
"       Turkish,  201. 
Crete,  Rebellion  in,  173. 
Crim  Tartars,  The,  422. 
Croia,  320. 
Crops,  Yield  of,  406. 
Crosbie,  Rev.  P.  343. 
Crusaders,  127. 
Cultivation,  System  of,  404. 
Cuuibert,  247. 
Custom  Duties,  387. 
Cyanean  Gates,  66. 
Czerny  George,  245,  249. 


D. 


Daavi-Medjlisseri,  447. 

Danube,  Passage  of,  281. 

Debt,  Plan  for  Unification  of  the,  390. 

Deer  Drive,  A,  369. 

"     Red,  313. 
Defence  for  Turkev,  Plan  of,  293. 
Defterdars,  138,442. 
Derairjee,  400. 
Demogeronties,  444. 
Denghizikh,  240. 
Derbent,  River,  288. 
Derey  Beys,  168 
Devua,  Lake,  282. 
Dibra,  322 
Dinner,  Bulgarian,  93. 


Dinner,  Turkish,  236. 
Disabul,  124 
Divan, 139,  455 
Divan-Temyzi,  446. 
Djavid  Pasha,  201. 
Djumaa,  332. 
Djumaa,  District  of,  59. 
Dobrudja,  Cossacks  of  the,  256. 
Dogs,  Savage,  307. 
Dolma-Baghtcheh,  Palace  at,  186. 
Domain  Lands,  395. 
Douchan,  Stephen,  241. 
Dragomen,  Constantinople,  7. 
Dzhami,  The,  318. 


E. 


Ecclesiastical  Disputes,  Bulgarian  and 

Greek,  49. 
Education,  458. 
Eialets.  142. 

Elementary  Schools,  261. 
Emalthia,  Lord  of,  3l!». 
Emigrants,  Advice  to,  416. 
Emiueh,  Cape,  09. 
Erghne,  The,  334. 
Eski  Zaghra,  211. 

"  School  at,  32. 

Estate  of  a  Turkish  Bey,  234. 
Ertoghrul,  128. 
Esnafs,  448. 

Eucalyptus  Globulus,  238. 
Eunuchs,  453. 
Euripides,  Death  of,  367. 
Eustathius,  Archbishop,  351. 
Evkaf,  The,  394. 

Exaggeration,  Native  Habit  of,  873. 
Exarchate,  Bulgarian,  437 
Exports  and  Imports,  406. 


F. 


Far  Away  Moses,  7. 
Farm  Buildings,  419. 
Farm  Laborers,  400,  407. 
Farmers,  Amateur,  415. 
Farming,  418,  478. 

"         Success  in,  413. 
Wasteful,  420. 
Fasts,  402. 
Feasts,  403. 
Finance,  Turkish,  461. 
Finns,  18. 

Fires  in  Constantinople,  10. 
Firman       Establishing        Bulgarian 

Church,  435. 
Fleas,  117,  207. 
Flood,  Ancient,  67. 
Forage,  Army,  273. 


490 


INDEX. 


Forage  and  Fuel,  292. 

Foreigners,  Real  Property  held  by, 

397. 
Forests,  Destruction  of,  228. 
Fountain,  Ancient,  343. 
Funeral,  Bulgarian,  91. 


G. 


Gabrowa,  287. 

Gaza,  Theodore,  351. 

Gedik,  395. 

Geladar,  399. 

Gendarmerie  of  Constantinople,  265. 

Geugliis,  Khan,  127. 

Geougen,  Kahn  of  the,  122. 

Gheglialik,  M.,  321. 

Qheghas,  or  Gheghides,  318. 

Gypsies,  201,338. 

Giustiniaui,  John,  158. 

Glossary,  481-6. 

Gold,  124,  229. 

Golden  Age,  124. 

Grain,  Marketing,  420. 

Grapes,  410. 

Grazing,  403. 

Greek  Brigandage,  82. 

"       Love  of  Intrigue,  80. 

"      Priests  in  Turkey,  76. 
Greeks,  Ambition  of,  77. 

"         Bitter  Feeling  of,  81. 
of  Black  Sea  Coast,  77. 

"        Massacre  of,  81. 

"        Number  of  in  Turkey,  71. 
Origin  of,  72. 

"         Pursuits  of,  73. 
Grievance,  Manufacturing  a,  373. 


H. 


Hamals,  Turkish,  8. 
Hamblin,  Dr.  Cyrus,  36. 
Harem,  the  Sultan's,  452. 
Harvesters,  406. 
Hasuadar-Kadyn,  453. 
Hatt-i-cherifs,  142. 
Hatt-i-]iumayouus,  142. 
Hawking,  236. 
Herzegovina,  Rebellion  in,  193. 

"  Subjection  of,  244. 

Hiong-nu,  121. 
Hobart  Pasha,  276. 
Hobby,  A  Strange,  3. 
Holmes,  Consul,  Report  from,  193. 
Hotels,  Constantinople,  9. 
Horses  of  Tura,  16. 
Horses,  Turkish,  118,  123,  274,  408. 

"       Recruiting  for  Army,  269. 
Hortach  Mountains,  344. 


Hot  Spring,  213,  217. 

Hound,  Native  Breed  of,  108. 

Houssein  Pasha,  233. 

Huns,  19. 

Hunting,  108. 

Hunyades,  244. 

Hussein  Avni  Pasha,  273. 


Idadyeh,  261. 

Ignatieff,  General,  55,  145. 

Ikhtiat,  262. 

Illvriaus,  The,  319. 

llt'izam.  The,  379. 

Imaums,  151. 

Imperial  Lyceum,  460. 

"       University,  460. 
Imports,  Tables  of,  462. 
Infantry,  264. 

Interpreter  of  the  Divan,  457. 
Iron,  Turkish,  306. 
Ironclads,  Turkish,  276. 
Iron  Gate,  The,  288. 
Iskender  Beg,  319. 
Islamism,  Advance  of,  425. 

"        General  Ignoiance  of,  426. 


Jackals  in  Europe,  109. 
Jantra,  River,  233,  284. 
Janizaries,  132,  142,  245. 

Downfall  of,  167. 
Jenikoi,  289, 
Jenedsche  Tobacco,  409. 
Jews  in  Turkey,  356. 
Jewish  Commercial  Travelers,  360. 
Converts,  360. 

"       Fire  Brigade,  361. 

"       Funeral,  361. 

"       Schools,  359. 
Justice,  Courts  of,  444. 

K. 

Kabilovitch,  Milosch,  243. 

Kadikoi,  289. 

Kadyu,  The,  453. 

Kamtchik,  River,  289. 

Karadagh,  321. 

Karadja  Dagh,  204,299. 

Kara  George,  245,  249. 

Karasmac,  River,  345. 

Karies,  147. 

Karlofer,  218. 

Karlowa,  223. 

Kasan,  288. 

Kasan,  District  of,  285. 

Keradjee,  A  Lawless,  334,  340. 


INDEX. 


491 


Kerraan,  Dynasty  of,  12G. 
Keziinlik,  213. 
Khakhain,  Bashi,  The,  359. 
Khalki,  Naval  School  at,  378. 
Khans  at  Tirnova,  233. 
Khodya,  139. 
Kikree,  405. 
Kinprili,  49. 

Family  of,  1G7. 
Klissura,  222,  287. 
Konak,  399. 

Koran,  Wine  Forbidden  in  the,  203. 
Kossova,  Battle  of,  131,  241. 
Kourbetgees,  320. 


Land,  Mode  of  valuing,  383. 

"      Tenure,  394. 

"      Valueof,  112,  208. 
Landed  Property,  Tran.sfer  of,  397. 
Landlords,  Non-resideut,  403. 
Lands,  Turkish  Division  of,  140. 
Latius,  326. 
Lazarus,  Kiug,  241. 
Lemons,  410. 
Leo,  Archbishop,  23. 
Liapides,  The,  318. 
Lions,  347. 
Lipovans,  250. 
Lira,  Turkish,  378. 
Listopat,  Mr.,  94. 
Liva,  144,  443. 

Liverpool  to  Constantinople,  1, 
Loans,  Turkish,  464. 
Longworth,  Consul,  on  Cretan  Rebell- 
ion, 173, 
"  to  Sir  H.  Bulwer,  177. 

"  Report  from,  188. 

Lovtcha,  231. 
Lyceums,  459. 


M. 


Mabein,  The,  452. 

Macedonia,  Roman  Division  of,  348. 

Macedonian  Plains,  344. 

Climate  of,  228. 
Machinery,  Objection  to,  407. 
Mahmoud  11.,  107. 
Mahmoud  the  Ghaznavide,  125. 
Maize,  405. 

Malaria  Fevers,  105,  293. 
Mamim  Jews,  358. 
Manufactures  in  Karlofer,  219. 
Maps,  Errors  of,  800. 
Maritza,  Plain  of,  204. 
Massacre  of  Shiites,  424. 
Massacres,  Bulgarian,  223. 


Matt,  324. 

Maury  on  Black  Sea  Currents,  66. 

Medical  College,  400. 

"       Establishments,  266. 
Medieme,  College  of,  400. 
Med j  idle,  378. 
Medjliss.  448. 
Medjliss-i-idareh,  443. 
Medresses,  150,  152. 
Mehemet  Ali  Pasha,  297. 
Mekhemeh-i-nizamiyeh,  447. 
Mektebs,  150,  152. 
Mektoubji,  442, 
Melene,  88. 
Mesembria,  08. 
Metayer  System,  GO,  401. 
Methodius,  22. 
Mevlevizet,  440. 
Michael.  Prince,  250.  255. 
Midhat  Pasha,  53,  354. 
Milan,  Prince,  250. 
Milanovitch,  Mladen,  240. 
Military  College,  Imperial,  260. 

"         College  of  Medicine,  261. 

"        Council,  270. 

"       Preparatory  Schools,  260. 

"       Routes  to  Constantinople,  286 
Service,  202. 

"        Staff,  Sultan's,  453. 

"        Workmen,  Corps  of,  265. 
Milosch,  Prince,  248. 
Mineral  Springs,  111. 
Wealth,  229. 
Mines,  390,  412. 
Mira,  390. 
Miridit,  322. 
Miridites,  The,  313. 
Missions,  American,  35. 
Missionaries,  American,  306. 
Mohammed  II.,  150,  155. 
Mohammedan  Sects,  424. 
Mohammedanism,  Progress  of,  425. 
Mollahs,  445. 
Molla  Pasha,  247, 
Monastery  near  Karlofer,  223. 
"  Rilo,  147.  311,  330. 

"  of  St.  Athanasius,  110. 

Monasteries  in  Bulgaria,  438. 
Monasteries,  Government  of  Greek, 

146. 
Monasteries,  Mt.  Athoa,  144. 
Monastic  Assembly,  General,  147 
Mongolian  Race,  16. 
Monk  Scratcher,  332. 
Monks,  Council  of,  145. 

"        of  Rilo  Monastir,  330. 

*'        Russian  and  Greek,  145. 
Montenegro,  255,  321. 
Mouktar,  444. 


492 


INDEX. 


Mountains  Soutli  of  tlie  Balkan,  204. 
Mountain  System,  Meeting  of  Turk- 

isli,  305. 
Mountain  Tribes,  423. 
Mourad.  Sultan,  187,  279. 
Moustafiz,  266. 

Mt.  Athos,  Monasteries  on,  144. 
Muavin,  442. 
Muderris,  151. 
Mudir,  443. 
Muftis,  139, 
Mulk  Property,  395. 
Muhassebelidji,  443. 
Mulberry  Tree,  411. 
Multeyiui,  The,  379. 
Music,  Bulgarian,  90. 
MustechSrs,  456. 
Mutessarif,  443. 

N. 

Nahieh,  142,  443. 
Naib,  446. 

Nationalities  in  Turkey,  11. 
Navy,  Turkish,  276. 
Newspapers,  Bulgarian,  40. 
Niausta,  Massacre  at,  81. 
Nicopolis,  Battle  of,  24. 
Nischaudyes,  138. 
Nizam,  262,  384. 
Nizamiyeh,  445. 

O. 

Oak  Scrub,  Macedonian,  341. 

Obreuovitch,  Milosch,  246. 

Ochrida,  21. 

Odalik,  The,  453. 

Officers,  Scarcity  of  Good,  276. 

Officials,  Turkish,  64. 

Origin  of,  138. 
Oke,  The,  386. 
Olives.  410. 
Olympus,  Mount,  343. 
Orchan,  Sultan,  130,  141. 
Organic  Statute,  Servian,  250. 
Orsenius,  Bulgarian  Primate,  27. 
Orthodox  Church,  75. 
Orthodox  City,  350. 
Osma,  River,  231,  238. 
Osman,  128. 
Osman,  Bazaar,  287. 
Osmanlis,  129,  427. 
Othmau,  128. 

Ottoman  Greek  Subjects,  71. 
Ottoman  Slaves,  240,  256. 
Ottomans,  129. 


P. 


Pack-Animals,  371. 

Padishah,  139. 

Palaeologus,  Andronicus,  130. 

Palaeologus,  Constantine,  155. 

Palgrave,  Mr.,  425.  ~' 

Pancaldy,  Military  College  at,  260. 

Pan-Hellenism,  256. 

Pan-Slavism,  255. 

Pano  Gospodinoff,  212. 

Paris,  Treaty  of,  172. 

Pasha,  Title  of,  140. 

Passarowitz,  Treaty  of,  255. 

Passes,  Mountain,  213. 

Pasturage,  403. 

Patriarchs  of  the  Oriental  Church,  75. 

Paulicians,  39. 

Paymaster's  Department,  272. 

Pella,  345. 

Pentapolis,  The  Greek,  70. 

Perim  Dagh,  333. 

Perseus,  King,  348. 

Phalanx,  Macedonian,  319. 

Phanar,  Intiuence  of  the,  75. 

"      Intrigues,  26. 
Pheasant  Shooting,  335. 
Philippopolis,  Sandjak  of,  31. 
Schools  at,  32. 
Philippovitch,  246. 
Piaster,  What  is  a,  377. 
Pillars  of  State,  138. 
Plows,  405. 
Plum  Brandy,  148. 
Plums,  217. 
Podbaschi,  290. 
Poles  in  Turkey,  94. 
Police,  Mounted,  225. 
Polygamy,  428. 
Population,  Dense,  208. 
Population,  Tables  of,  439. 
Pravadi,  289. 
Prayers,  Calling  to,  331. 
Procrastination,  Habit  of,  301. 
Propaganda,  Roman  Catholic,  39. 
Purse,  Turkish,  378. 


R. 


Races  in  Turkey,  135. 

Railways,  Turkish,  280. 

Raki,  236. 

Rascians,  327. 

Rayahs,  142,  401. 

Real  Property,   Right  of  Foreigners 

to  Hold,  397,  473. 
Reapers,  Female,  86. 
Rebellion  of  1867-8,  Bulgarian,  52. 
Red  Deer  in  Turkey,  369. 


INDEX. 


493 


Redifs,  lat  and  2d,  203,  2G6. 

"       Central  Commission  of,  272. 

"       Sub-Commission  of,  271. 
Beis  Effendi,  139. 
Reform    in    Turkey,    DiflBcultiea   of 

177. 
Reserves,  Army,  266. 
Revenue  and  Expenditure,  467. 

'*        Farming,  402. 
Revethi,  405. 
Rhodope  Mountains,  226. 
Rilo  Mountains,  805. 
"   Monastir,  311.  830. 
"   Monastery,  147. 
Riza  Pasha,  273. 
Roads  in  Turkey,  205,  291,  389. 
Roads,  Military,  286. 

•'      Roman,  230,  343,  349. 
Robert  College,  361,  431. 
Roman  Wells,  343. 
Rose,  Attar  of,  214. 
Rose  Cultivation,  215, 
Roum,  20. 

"      Dynasty  of.  126. 
Roumanians,  Origin  of,  365. 
Routes  from  England  to  Turkey,  363. 
Rovi,  405. 
Ruchdiyeh,  261. 

Rulers,  Corruption  of  Ottoman,  430. 
Russian  Attack,  Probable  Plan  of,  294. 

"       Intrigues,  41,  50,  172,250. 

**        Monks,  145. 

"       Protectorate  over   Montene- 
gro, 255. 


S. 


Saint  Athanasiug,  Monastery  of,  110. 

"    Paul,  Pulpit  used  by,  349. 
Sakar  Bair,  200. 
Salonica,  40,  345. 

Plains,  344. 
Salyane,  The,  383. 
Samakov,  306. 
Sandjak,  443. 
Sayme,  The,  386. 
Scanderbeg,  319. 
Scenery,  Mountain,  311. 
Schliemann,  Dr.  5. 
gcodra,  Pasha  of,  328. 
Schools  at  Adrianople,  39. 

"       Elementary,  261. 

"      at  Eski  Zaghra,  33,  211. 

"      Jewish,  359. 

"       Military,  260. 

"      Naval,  278. 

"       at  Philippopolis,  33. 

"      Primary,  458. 

"      at  Salonica,  40. 


Schools,  Secondary,  459. 
Secret  Societies,  256. 
Selim,  Sultan,  245,  424 
Seljuk,  125. 
Semens,  399. 

Sensation,  Native  Love  of,  373. 
Seraskier,  2G9,  454. 
Servia,  Fortresses  of,  254. 

"       Subjection  of,  244. 
Servians'   Attack    on    Turks  at  Bel- 
grade, 254. 
Defeat  of,  341. 
"        Insurrections  of,  244. 
"        Rights  Confirmed,  249. 
"        Russian  Intrigues    among, 

251. 
"        Submission  to  Turks,  244. 
Sesame,  304,  405. 
Sfetegrade,  Fortress  of,  319. 
Shibka,  287. 
Sheep,  118. 

"      Dogs, 

"      Farming,  408,  417,  478. 

"      Tax,  386. 
Shepherds,  Nomad,  366. 
Sheiks,  151. 

Sheik-ul-Islam,  153,  445, 453. 
Shemsi  Pasha,  439. 
Sheri,  Courts,  445. 
Shiites,  424. 
Shumla,  283. 
Signs,    Affirmative     and     Negative, 

372. 
Silistria,  281. 
Silk  Cultivation,  410. 
Silk  Factory  in  Eski  Zaghra,  211. 
Silver,  229. 
Simeon,  King,  23. 
Sisopolis,  293. 
Skipetars,  The,  317. 
Skupshtina,  246,  253, 
Slaves  or  Slavs  in  Turkey,  240,  256. 

"      Origin  of,  240. 

"      Religion  of  Ancient,  241. 

"      Christian,  141. 
Slatitza,  287,  301. 
Slivmia,  200. 

Smith,  Mr.  Bosworth,  435. 
Snow  in  the  Balkan,  290. 
Sofia,  Plains  of,  237,  305. 
Softa,  150. 
Soil,  Analysis  of,  86. 
Soldiers,  Albanian,  328. 
Turkish,  136. 
Soliman,  Sultan,  126. 
Sopat,  224. 
Soubassi,  399. 
Speculation,  392. 
Sport,  418. 


494 


INDEX. 


Sportsmen,  Hints  to,  369. 
Springs,  Hot,  213,  346. 
Squall  iu  Black  Sea,  107. 
Stamps,  388. 
Standing  Army,  262. 
State,  Council  of,  455. 
Stock  Jobbers,  392. 
Storks,  115. 

Strandja  Mountains,  85. 
Strangford,  Lady,  223. 

"  Viscount,  quoted,  29,  53. 

Strymon,  River,  334,  340. 
Stuart,  Consul,  Report  from,  191. 
Sublime  Porte.  138. 
Sultan,  Title  of,  125. 
Sultan's  Harem,  452. 

"       Military  Staff,  453. 

'<       Privy  Council,  454. 
Sultanitza  Mountains,  342. 
Sunnites,  424. 
Svilenoa,  245. 
Sword  of  Othman,  129. 
Synod,  Bulgarian,  Letters  from,  43,45. 
Svra,  4. 
Syria,  126. 
System,  Metayer,  60,  401. 

"        of  Organization,  258. 


T. 


Tahrirat  Mudiri,  443. 
Talegas,  85,  117. 
Tanzimat,  143,  169. 
Tapou,  The,  388. 
TarilT,  Turkish,  387,  461. 
Tartars,  Crimean,  422. 

"        of  the  Dobrudja,  422. 
Tax,  Military  Exemption,  384. 

"    Non-Mussulman,  384. 

"    Reform,  Suggestions  for,  381. 
Taxation,  377. 

Taxes,  Method  of  Collecting,  379. 
"      Statistical  Table.s  of,  469. 
Tchinganes,  338. 
Tchornozem,  86. 
Telegraphy,  Leo's  System  of,  23. 
Temyz-i-houkouk-Medjlisseri,  447. 
Tenants,  400. 

Tent  Court  Life  in  the  East,  138. 
Tetunium,  Battle  of,  24. 
•Teskerre,  63. 

Theodosius,  Emperor,  350. 
Therma,  .S47. 
Thermal  Springs,  346, 
Thessalonica,  347. 
Thibbiyeh,  261. 
Threshing,  406. 
Timmetou-verghi,  The,  383. 
Timars,  137. 


Timour,  133. 
Tirnova,  21,  232,  284. 
Title-Deeds,  397. 
Tobacco,  405,  409. 
Togrul  Bey,  126. 
Topana,  Council  of,  270. 
Toskalik,  The,  321. 
Toskas  or  Toskides,  318,  337. 
Trebizond,  Mines  of,  124. 
Troy,  Ancient,  5. 
Troyau,  230. 

Troyan  to  Samakov,  298. 
Tumuli,  Ancient,  115,  343. 
Tundja  Mountains,  85. 
Tundja,  Valley  of  the,  285. 
Tungusian  Race,  16. 
Tura,  Laud  of,  15. 
Turk,  Son  of  Japhet,  121. 
Turkey,  Central  Watershed  of,  327. 
Climate  of,  227. 

"        Corruption  in,  393. 

"        Difficulties    of    Government 
in,  423. 

"        Ecclesiastical  Appointments 
in,  151. 

"        Education  in,  149,  170. 

"         Emigration  to,  413. 

"        Ethnological  Boundaries  in, 
239. 
Farming  in,  399. 

"        Feudal  System  in,  137. 

"        Geological  Features  of,  228. 

"         Land  Tenure  in,  394. 

"        Landed  Proprietors  in,  399. 

"        Mineral  Wealth  of,  229. 

"        Natural  Resources  of,  390. 

"        No  Family  Names  in,  137. 

"        Phvsical  Aspect  of,  227. 
Pla'u  of  Defense  for,  393. 
Political   Divisions   in,   187, 
142,  144. 

"        System  of  Cultivation,  404. 

"         Traveling  in,  114. 

"        Value  of  Land  in,  113. 

"        Young,  438. 
Turkish  Administration,  443. 

"        Army,  258. 

"        Army,  Ancient,  279. 

"        Bonds  and  Bond-holders,  390. 

"         Conquests,  131, 133. 

"         Corruption,  197. 

"        Court  Life,  Ancient,  138. 
Debt,  173. 

"        Division  of  Lands,  140. 

"        Empire,  Foundation  of,  134. 

"        Finance,  461. 

"        Fortresses,  28. 

"         Government,  135. 

•'        Hospitality,  299. 


INDEX. 


495 


Turkisli  Justice,  201. 

"        Landed  Proprietor,  234. 

Loans,  170,  18G. 
"        Monarcliy,  Decays  of,  1G6. 

Navy,  27G. 

Officials,  208, 
"        Patience  in  Adversity,  205. 
"         Politeness,  117. 
"         Progress,  174. 

Eailways,  280. 

Reforms,  1G8. 
"        Rule  in  Asia  Minor,  126. 

Soldiers,  13G. 
Turks,  Ancient  Religion  of,  123. 
"      Arrogance  of,  61. 
"      Cavalry  of,  123,  125. 
"      Election  of  a  King  by,  121. 
"      Migrations  of,  121. 
"      Mohammedanism  embraced  Ly, 

126. 
"      Nomadic  Character  of,  122. 
"      Origin  of,  121. 
"      Various  Tribes  of,  122 

U. 

TJgrian  Eace,  16. 
Ulema,  139,  149.  151. 
Umur  Bev,  130. 
Uniates,  39. 
Upper  Debra,  319. 
Uscup,  Province  of,  326. 

V. 

Vacouf  Property,  394. 

Vacoufs,  140. 

Vali,  186,  443. 

Valideh  Sultana,  141,  186. 

Varna,  282. 

Varna,  Battle  of,  244. 

Verde  Antics,  349,  353. 

Verghi,  The,  382. 

Verria,  365. 

Via  Egnatia,  342,  345,  349. 

Vieux  Croyants,  256. 

Vilaiet,  442. 

Vilaiets  in  Turkey  in  Europe,  451. 

Villages,  Bulgarian,  208. 

Village  Property,  39G. 

Vineyards,  204,  410. 

Village  at  Rilo  Mouastir,  331. 

Viss.  The,  324. 

Vituslx  Mountain,  305. 


Vizier,  Grand,  453. 

"      Office  of,  130, 187. 
Vlaques,  365. 
Voivodes,  246. 
Volo,  410. 
Volovoskos,  AQO. 
Von  Moltke,  General,  282. 

W. 

Wages,  Scale  of,  419. 
Wallachians,  C65. 

Dogs  of  the,  367. 
Number  of,  366. 
Religion  of,  366. 
Walnut  Oil,  217. 
War,  Material  of,  273,  275. 

"     Ministry  of,  270. 

"     Taxes,  209. 

"      Theater  of,  281. 
Water-Bottle,  Curious,  230. 

"      Power,  354. 
Watershed,  Central,  of  Turkey,  227. 
Weddings,  Bulgarian,  89. 
Wheeler,  Mr.  Talboys,  425. 
Widdin,  177. 
Wine,  410. 

Wine  and  the  Koran,  203. 
Wokalut,  The,  379. 
Wolf,  Cry  of,  376. 
Woodcock  Shooting,  365. 
Wool,  409. 

Wrestling  Match,  336. 
Writing,  Turkish,  459. 


X. 


Xerxes,  341,  346. 


Takoub,  Prince,  243. 
Tanboli,  114,  117. 
Yeni  Zaghra,  207. 
Yeradjees,  399. 
Young  Turkey,  150,  428. 

Z. 

Zabergan,  Finnish  Chief,  19. 
Zabtiyeh  Naziri,  450. 
Zahire-Naziri,  169. 
Zaptiehs,  225,  265. 
ZiametSj  137. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 

Los  Angeles 

This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below. 


S- 


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FEB  18 


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1981 


NOV  19^987 


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